Figure 1.

Scar-forming astrocyte transformation and the dual role of the glial scar and scar-forming astrocytes in spinal cord injury (SCI). ① In the acute and subacute phases of SCI, the glial scar and scar-forming astrocytes not only restrict the spread of inflammation but also regulate inflammation through interactions with innate and peripheral immune cells. ② Microglia-mediated A1 phenotypic changes result in neuronal and mature oligodendrocytic death through the release of soluble toxins. ③ The glial scar inhibits spinal cord regeneration through physical obstruction and the release of inhibitory molecules. ④ In the chronic phase, the glial scar persistently limits the fibrotic tissue and macrophages. Scar-forming astrocytes may serve as bridges for axonal growth under certain conditions.