Table 1. Baseline set of model parameter values.

Parameter	Meaning	Value	Ref.
R	tumor cell radius	9.953	[20]
RN	tumor cell nuclear radius	5.295	[20, 82]
RA	tumor action radius	1.214R	[20, 21]
Re	endothelial cell radius	0.5R	estimated
$R_N^e$	endothelial cell nuclear radius	0.5RN	estimated
$R_A^e$	endothelial action radius	0.5RA	estimated
ccca	tumor cell-cell adhesion coefficient	0	estimated
ccca	endothelial-endothelial cell adhesion coefficient	0.488836	[20]
cccr	tumor cell-cell repulsion coefficient	10	[21]
cct	cell-boundary adhesion coefficient	10	estimated
crct	cell-boundary repulsion coefficient	0	estimated
τP	total cell cycle time	18h	[20, 21]
τG1	G1 phase time	9h	[83]
τA	apoptosis time	8.6h	[20, 21]
τNL	lysing time	6h	[20, 21]
τC	necrosis time	360h	[20, 21]
${\overline{\alpha }}_P$	proliferation intensity	0.27067 h−1	estimated
αA	$Q\to A$ transition intensity	0.0012728 h−1	[20, 21]
σH	hypoxic threshold	0.3	estimated
σN	necrotic threshold	0.25σH	estimated
αV	VEGF threshold	0.1	estimated
dmin	minimum distance from tip cell for new tip cell selection	8RA	estimated
dSE	minimum distance from tip cell for S → E transition	1.55R	estimated
dES	maximum distance from tip cell for E → S transition	1.55R	estimated
τgrow	stalk cell growth time	38h	estimated
ctm	VEGF coefficient	0.6	estimated
crep	lumen repulsion coefficient	1.0	estimated
dTT	maximum distance for tip cells to deactivate	3$R_A^e$	estimated
Dn	nutrient diffusion coefficient	1000 μm2/h	[20, 21]
DV	VEGF diffusion coefficient	8000 μm2/h	estimated
${\lambda }_{pq}^c,{\lambda }_h^c$	nutrient consumption rate of proliferative/quiescent, hypoxic cells	0.8 h−1	[20, 21]
γe	nutrient production rate of endothelial cells	300 h−1	estimated
${\lambda }_t^c,{\lambda }_s^c,{\lambda }_p^c$	VEGF consumption rate of tip, stalk, and phalanx cells	10 h−1	estimated
γh	VEGF production rate of hypoxic cells	300 h−1	estimated
${\lambda }_{\mathit{d}ecay}^{VEGF}$	natural decay rate of VEGF	0.0 h−1	estimated
${\lambda }_{\mathit{d}ecay}^{\sigma }$	natural decay rate of nutrient	0.0 h−1	estimated