Table 6.
Types of Cd pollution in soil and groundwater.
| Source | Type of pollution | Example case | Maximum Cd level | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mining | ||||
| Pb–Zn mining/refinery | 1. Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Jinding, China | Soil: 531 mg/kg | Wen et al. (2015) |
| 2. Waste water | Coeur d’Alene basin, Idaho, USA | Groundwater: 77 μg/L | Paulson (1997) | |
| Fe–Ni–Co mining | Waste material | Several sites in Albania | Soil: 14 mg/kg | Shallari et al. (1998) |
| Cu mining | Waste water | Canchaque, Peru | Soil: 499 mg/kg | Bech et al. (1997) |
| Au–Cu mining | Waste water | Bolnisi, Georgia | Soil: 121.5 mg/kg | Avkopashvili et al. (2017) |
| Au–Ag–Pb–Zn mining | Waste water | Chloride, Arizona USA | Groundwater: 19 μg/L | Rosner (1998) |
| Phosphorite mining | Mining waste, transport | Kpogamé, Hahotoé, Togo | Soil: 43 mg/kg | Gnandi and Tobschall (2002) |
| Pb mining and refinery | Atmospheric deposition | Příbram, Czech Republic | Soil: 48 mg/kg | Rieuwerts and Farago (1996) |
| As refinery | Waste material | Reppel, Belgium | Soil: 79 mg/kg | Cappuyns et al. (2002) |
| Zn smelter | 1. Waste material | Celje, Slovenia | Soil: 344 mg/kg | Voglar and Lestan (2010) |
| 2. Atmospheric deposition | Hezhang County, China | Soil: 74 mg/kg | Bi et al. (2006) | |
| Industry | ||||
| Metal industry | Atmospheric deposition | Unnao, India | Groundwater: 74 μg/L | Dwivedi and Vankar (2014) |
| Cement factory | Atmospheric deposition | Qadissiya, Jordan | Soil: 13 mg/kg | Al-Khashman and Shawabkeh (2006) |
| Ceramic industry | 1. Sewage sludge | Castellon, Spain | Soil: 72 mg/kg | Jordan et al. (2009) |
| 2. Atmospheric deposition | Yixing, China | Soil: 5.9 mg/kg | Lin et al. (2015) | |
| Textile industry | Waste water | Haridwar, India | Soil: 83.6 mg/kg Groundwater: 40 μg/L | Deepali and Gangwar (2010) |
| Pigment manufacture | Atmospheric deposition | Staffordshire, UK | Soil: 16 mg/kg | Vangronsveld et al. (2009) |
| Various (e.g., textile, electroplating) | Waste water | Coimbatore, India | Soil: 12.8 mg/kg | Malarkodi et al. (2007) |
| Waste management | ||||
| Landfill | Leachate | Taoyuan, Taiwan Alexandria, Egypt | Soil: 378 mg/kg Groundwater: 51 μg/L | Chen and Liu (2006) Abd El-Salam and Abu-Zuid (2015) |
| Brownfield | Waste water | Xiangjiang River, China | Groundwater: 474 μg/L | Li et al. (2017) |
| Electronical waste recycling | Waste water | Krishna Vihar, India | Soil: 47.7 mg/kg Groundwater: 280 μg/L | Panwar and Ahmed (2018) |
| Household wastes | Waste water | Ikare, Nigeria | Groundwater: 580 μg/L | Ololade et al. (2009) |
| Sewage and waste disposal | Waste water | Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana | Groundwater: 90 μg/L | Affum et al. (2015) |
| Disposal facilities | Leachate | Great lakes region, USA | Soil: 32 mg/kg | Beyer and Stafford (1993) |
| Agriculture | ||||
| P fertilizer production | Atmospheric deposition | Rio Grande, Brazil | Soil: 9.3 mg/kg Groundwater: 3 μg/L | Mirlean and Roisenberg (2006) |
| P fertilizer application | Infiltration | Cauvery River basin, India | Groundwater: 60 μg/L | Vetrimurugan et al. (2017) |
| Sewage sludge application | Irrigation | Several sites in Spain | Soil: 90 mg/kg | Moral et al. (2005) |
| Urban areas | ||||
| Road traffic | Infiltration | Celle, Germany | Groundwater: 2.34 μg/L | Wessolek and Kocher (2002) |
| Sewerage | Leakage | Rastatt, Germany | Groundwater: 5 μg/L | Eiswirth and Hotzl (1997) |