Table 3.
General effect of training and age on cognitive performance.
| Reaction time | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Training effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 7.356 | 5.381 | −5.493, 20.20 | =0.432 |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −29.33 | 14.90 | −64.92, 6.260 | =0.140 |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −36.68 | 15.80 | −74.42, 1.053 | =0.060 |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 7.065 | 3.858 | −2.148, 16.28 | =0.188 |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −9.577 | 9.136 | −31.39, 12.24 | =0.649 |
| Controls: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −16.64 | 9.825 | −40.10, 6.817 | =0.247 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 4.416 | 11.03 | −21.91, 30.74 | =0.970 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −24.36 | 28.50 | −92.41, 43.70 | =0.776 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −28.78 | 30.44 | −101.4, 43.90 | =0.718 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 7.545 | 4.939 | −4.249, 19.34 | =0.334 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −10.02 | 11.42 | 37.29, 17.26 | =0.762 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −17.56 | 12.28 | −46.88, 11.76 | =0.392 |
| Age effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | −52.48 | 1.762 | −56.42, −48.54 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | −52.77 | 2.834 | −59.11, −46.43 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | −32.72 | 6.669 | −47.65, −17.80 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | −34.56 | 2.989 | −41.25, −27.88 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | −31.43 | 4.570 | −41.66, −21.21 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | −20.22 | 10.58 | −43.90, 3.462 | =0.109 |
| Working memory | ||||
| Training effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 0.397 | 0.046 | 0.287, 0.507 | <0.001** |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | 0.700 | 0.127 | 0.396, 1.004 | <0.001** |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | 0.303 | 0.135 | −0.019, 0.625 | =0.072 |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 0.715 | 0.064 | 0.562, 0.868 | <0.001** |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | 1.140 | 0.152 | 0.778, 1.502 | <0.001** |
| Controls: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | 0.425 | 0.163 | 0.036, 0.814 | =0.027 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 0.365 | 0.094 | 0.140, 0.590 | =0.001* |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | 0.687 | 0.243 | 0.106, 1.268 | =0.014 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | 0.322 | 0.260 | −0.298, 0.942 | =0.517 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | 0.644 | 0.082 | 0.448, 0.840 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | 1.161 | 0.190 | 0.709, 1.613 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | 0.517 | 0.204 | 0.031, 1.003 | =0.033 |
| Age effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | −0.896 | 0.017 | −0.933, −0.859 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | −0.578 | 0.066 | −0.725, −0.431 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | −0.456 | 0.008 | −0.474, −0.438 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | −0.724 | 0.028 | −0.787, −0.661 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | −0.445 | 0.106 | −0.683, −0.207 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | −0.250 | 0.013 | −0.279, −0.221 | <0.001** |
| Fluid intelligence | ||||
| Training effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | −0.294 | 0.179 | −0.722, 0.134 | =0.273 |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −1.057 | 0.496 | −2.241, 0.127 | =0.096 |
| Controls: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −0.763 | 0.526 | −2.019, 0.493 | =0.379 |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | −0.340 | 0.113 | −0.610, −0.070 | =0.008 |
| Controls: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −0.985 | 0.268 | −1.625, −0.345 | =0.001* |
| Controls: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −0.645 | 0.288 | −1.333, 0.043 | =0.074 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | −0.408 | 0.367 | −1.284, 0.468 | =0.605 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −1.163 | 0.949 | −3.428, 1.102 | =0.526 |
| Statin users: middle-aged, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −0.755 | 1.013 | −3.174, 1.664 | =0.839 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 2 | −0.298 | 0.145 | −0.644, 0.048 | =0.115 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 1 vs assessment 3 | −1.103 | 0.335 | −1.903, −0.303 | =0.003 |
| Statin users: old, assessment 2 vs assessment 3 | −0.805 | 0.360 | −1.665, 0.055 | =0.074 |
| Age effect | MD | SE | CI 95% | P |
| Controls: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | 0.402 | 0.058 | 0.272, 0.532 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | 0.356 | 0.060 | 0.221, 0.491 | <0.001** |
| Controls: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | 0.474 | 0.006 | 0.461, 0.488 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 1, middle-aged vs old | 0.458 | 0.099 | 0.237, 0.679 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 2, middle-aged vs old | 0.568 | 0.097 | 0.350, 0.786 | <0.001** |
| Statin users: assessment 3, middle-aged vs old | 0.518 | 0.010 | 0.497, 0.539 | <0.001** |
Statistical test results from the analysis of training (repeated assessment) and age (middle-aged versus old) effects of controls and statin users in the three cognitive tests measuring reaction time (card game “Snap”), working memory (“Pairs matching test”) and reasoning abilities (“Fluid intelligence test”), adjusted for covariates (reaction time: sex, age, education, physical activity, sleep duration, alcohol intake, smoking status, angina, hypertension, cholesterol-lowering and anti-hypertension medication; working memory: sex, age, education, BMI, physical activity and hypertension; fluid intelligence: sex, age, education, physical activity, sleep duration, alcohol intake, heart attack, angina and cholesterol-lowering medication). Two-way ANOVAs and multiple comparison correction have been used for statistical analysis. MD = mean difference, SE = standard error, CI 95% = 95% confidence interval (min and max). *P < 0.003, **P < 0.001 for training effects and *P < 0.006, **P < 0.001 for age effects.