Table e1.
Additional Infectious Diseases of Domestic Suids and Evidence for Infection in Wild Suids
| Pathogen | Disease in Domestic Pig | Wild Host | Disease in Wild | Evidence in Wild Suids |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DNA Virus | ||||
| Porcine parvovirus | Stillbirth, abortion, fetal death, and loss | Bushpig, Wild boar | None described | Metagenomic (Blomström et al., 2012); Serology (Vengust et al., 2006; Montagnaro et al., 2010) |
| Torque teno sus virus | Uncertain; possibly increases pathogenicity of porcine circovirus | Bushpig, Wild boar | None described | Metagenomic (Blomström et al., 2012); PCR (Martínez et al., 2006) |
| RNA Virus | ||||
| Hepatitis E | Unknown | Wild boar | None described; zoonotic concerns | Serology and PCR (Sonoda et al., 2004; Michitaka et al., 2007; de Deus et al., 2008; Kaba et al., 2010) |
| Transmissable gastroenteritis virus (coronavirus) | Gastroenteritis, diarrhea | Unknown | None described | |
| Porcine respiratory coronavirus | Interstitial pneumonia, mild | Wild boar | None described | Serology (Vengust et al., 2006) |
| Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (coronavirus) | Gastroenteritis, watery diarrhea, vomiting | Wild boar | None described | Serology (Lee et al., 2016) |
| Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (arterivirus) | Subclinical to abortions, stillbirths, and cyanosis of ears and vulva in adults; pneumonia in neonatal pigs | Wild boar | None described | Serology (Montagnaro et al., 2010; Choi et al., 2012); Serology and RT-PCR (Stankevicius et al., 2016) |
| Vesicular stomatitis virus (Rhabdoviridae; vesiculovirus) | Vesicular lesions along the snout and coronary bands | Feral swine, peccaries | None to mild similar to domestic (Dardiri, 1969) | Serology (Fletcher et al., 1985; Stallknecht et al., 1986; Corn et al., 1987; Stallknecht et al., 1993) |
| Bacteria | ||||
| Lawsonia intracellularis | Proliferative enteritis | Wild boar | None described | Serology and/or PCR (Tomanova et al., 2002; Dezorzova-Tomanova et al., 2006; Yeh et al., 2014) |
| Leptospira interrogans (multiple serovars) | Often subclinical; can cause sepsis, nephritis, hepatitis, meningitis, and abortion | Peccaries, Wild boar | None described | Serology (Clark et al., 1983; Corn et al., 1987; Vale-Gonçalves et al., 2015; Zmudzki et al., 2016; Ruiz-Fons, 2017) |
| Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli(Shiga- toxin and O157 strains) | Neonatal and postweaning diarrhea | Wild boar | None described | Culture (Miko et al., 2009; Wahlstrom et al., 2003; Wacheck et al., 2010; Ruiz-Fons, 2017) |
Blomström, A-L., Stååhl, K., Masembe, C., Okoth, E., Okurut, A.R., Atmnedi, P., Kemp, S., Bishop, R., Belák, S., Berg, M., 2012. Viral metagenomic analysis of bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus) in Uganda identified novel variants of Porcine parvovirus 4 and Torque teno sus virus 1 and 2. Virol. J. 9, 192.
Clark, R.K., Jessup, D.A., Hird, D.W., Ruppanner, R., Meyer, M.E., 1983. Serologic survey of California wild hogs for antibodies against selected zoonotic disease agents. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 183(11), 1248–1251.
Corn, J.L., Lee, R.M., Erickson, G.A., Murphy, C.D., 1987. Serologic survey for evidence of exposure to vesicular stomatitis virus, pseudorabies virus, brucellosis and leptospirosis in collared peccaries from Arizona. J. Wildl. Dis. 23, 551–557.
Choi, E.J., Lee, C.H., Hyun, B.H., Kim, J.J., Lim, S.I., Song, J.Y., Shin, Y.K., 2012. A survey of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome among wild boar populations in Korea. J. Vet. Sci. 13, 377–383.
de Deus, N., Peralta, B., Pina, S., Allepuz, A., Mateu, E., Vidal, D., Ruiz-Fons, F., Martín, M., Gortázar, C., Segalés, J., 2008. Epidemiological study of hepatitis E virus infection in European wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Spain. Vet. Microbiol. 129, 163–170.
Dezorzova-Tomanova, K., Smola, J., Trcka, I., Lamka, J., Pavlik, I., 2006. Detection of Lawsonia intracellularis in wild boar and fallow deer bred in one game enclosure in the Czech Republic. J. Vet. Med. Ser. B 53, 42–44.
Fletcher, W.O.; Stallknecht, D.E., Jenney, E.W., 1985. Serologic surveillance for vesicular stomatitis virus on Ossabaw Island, Georgia. J. Wildl. Dis. 21, 100–104.
Kaba, M., Davoust, B., Marié, J-L., Colson, P., 2010. Detection of hepatitis E virus in wild boar (Sus scrofa) livers. Vet. J. 186, 259–261.
Lee, D.U., Kwon, T., Je, S.H., Yoo, S.J., Seo, S.W., Sunwoo, S.Y., Lyoo, Y.S., 2016. Wild boards harboring porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) may play an important role as a PEDV reservoir. Vet. Microbiol. 192, 90–94.
Montagnaro, S., Sasso, S., De Martino, L., Longo, M., Iovane, V., Ghiurmino, G., Pisanelli, G., Nava, D., Baldi, L., Pagnini, U., 2010. Prevalence of antibodies to selected viral and bacterial pathogens in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Campania region, Italy. J. Wildl. Dis. 46, 316–319.
Martínez, L., Kekarainen, T., Sibila, M., Ruiz-Fons, F., Vidal, D., Gortázar, C., Segalés J., 2006. Torque teno virus (TTV) is highly prevalent in the European wild boar (Sus scrofa). Vet. Microbiol. 118, 223–229.
Michitaka, K., Takahashi, K., Furukawa, S., Inoue, G., Hiasa, Y., Horiike, N., Onji, M., Abe, N., Mishiro, S., 2007. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus among wild boar in the Ehime area of western Japan. Hepatol. Res. 37, 214–220.
Miko, A., Pries, K., Haby, S., Steege, K., Albrecht, N., Krause, G., Beutin, L. 2009. Assessment of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolates from wildlife meat as potential pathogens for humans. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 6462–6470.
Ruiz Fons, F., 2017. A review of the current status of relevant zoonotic pathogens in wild swine (Sus scrofa) populations: changes modulating the risk of transmission to humans. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 64, 68–88.
Sonoda, H., Abe, M., Sugimoto, T., Sato, Y., Bando, M., Fukui, E., Mizuo, H., Takahasi, M., Nishizawa, T., Okamoto, H., 2004. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEVV) infection in wild boars and deer and genetic identification of a genotype 3 HEV from a boar in Japan. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 5371–5374.
Stallknecht, D.E., Nettles, V.F., Erickson, G.A., Jessup, D.A., 1986. Antibodies to vesicular stomatitis virus in populations of feral swine in the United States. J. Wildl. Dis. 22, 320–325.
Stallknecht, D.E., Kavanaugh, D.M., Corn, J.L., Eernisse, K.A., Comer, J.A., Nettles, V.F., 1993. Feral swine as a potential amplifying host for vesicular stomatitis virus New Jersey serotype on Ossabaw Island, Georgia. J. Wildl. Dis. 29, 377–383.
Stankevicius, A., Buitkuveine, J., Sutkiene, V., Spancerniene, U., Pampariene, I., Pautienius, A., Oberauskas, V., Zilinskas, H., Zymantiene, J., 2016. Detection and molecular characterization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in Lithuanian wild boar populations. Acta Vet. Scand. 58, 51.
Tomanova, K., Bartak, P., Smola, J. 2002. Detection of Lawsonia intracellularis in wild pigs in the Czech Republic. Vet. Rec. 151(25), 765–767.
Vale-Gonçalves, H.M., Cabral, J.A., Faria, M.C., Nunes-Pereira, M., Faria, A.S., Veloso, O., 2015. Prevalence of Leptospira antibodies in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from northern Portugal: risk factor analysis. Epidemiol. Infect. 143, 2126–2130.
Vengust, G., Valencak, Z., Bidovec, A., 2006. A serological survey of selected pathogens in wild boar in Slovenia. J. Vet. Med. Ser. B 53, 24–27.
Wahlstrom, H., Tys, E., Engvall, E.O., Brandstrom, B., Eriksson, E., Morner, T., Vagsholm, I., 2003. Survey of Campylobacter species, VTEC 0157 and Salmonella species in Swedish wildlife. Vet. Rec. 153, 74–80.
Wacheck, S., Fredriksson-Ahomaa, M., Koenig, M., Stolle, A., Stephan, R., 2010. Wild boars as an important reservoir for food-borne pathogens. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 7(3), 307–312.
Yeh, J.Y., 2014. Seroprevalence of porcine proliferative enteropathy among wild boars in the Republic of Korea. BMC Vet. Res. 10, 5.
Żmudzki, J., Jabłoński, A., Nowak, A., Zębek, S., Arent, Z., Bocian, L., Pejsak, Z., 2016. First overall report of Leptospira infections in wild boars in Poland. Acta Vet. Scand. 58, 3.