Table 3.

In vivo effects of ochratoxin A in different fish species. Effects were dose dependent.

Fish	Species	Dose (mg/kg)	Exposure Time	Effects	Ref.
Sea bass	Dicentrarchus labrax L.	0.05–0.4	24–96 hours	Behavioral changes—sluggish movement, loss of equilibrium, rapid operculum movement, changes in the swimming pattern and respiratory manifestation. Muscular seizures prior to death. Hemorrhagic patches on the dorsal surface. Erosion of the fins and rusty spot formation in the belly region and dorsal musculature. General congestion of the kidney and gills. Spots of congestion on the periphery of the liver. Increased mortality.	[107]
Juvenile channel catfish	Ictalurus punctus	0.5–8.0	8 weeks	Reduction in body weight gain. Decrease in feed conversion rate. Reduction in hematocrit. Lesions in the liver and posterior kidney—increased incidence and severity of melanomacrophage centers in the hepatopancreatic tissue and posterior kidney and reduced number or absence of exocrine pancreatic cells surrounding the portal veins. Increased mortality.	[108]
Nile tilapia	Oreochromis niloticus	3% of fish bodyweight	14 days	Reduce weight gain, feed intake, final weight and feed conversion rate. Sluggish swimming Lesions in the liver, kidneys and spleen. Enlargement and congestion of kidney and liver. Dilation of blood vessels and necrosis of the kidney, degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes. Pericarditis and myocarditis. Increased levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate transaminase, creatine and urea. Congested gills. Enlarged gallbladder. Reduction in total protein, albumin and globulin. Neutropenia. Higher mortality.	[110]
Atlantic salmon	Salmo salar	0.2–2.4	8 weeks	Increase in alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, total protein, albumin and aspartate transaminase. Increased mRNA expression of immune marker in the spleen.	[117]