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Pathophysiology of phosphate toxicity in the cardiovascular system. In CKD, higher serum phosphate levels are consistently linked with clinical and subclinical cardiovascular disease. Abbreviations: CPPs—Calciprotein particles; EMPs—endothelial microparticles; LVH—left ventricular hypertrophy; CHF—chronic heart failure; VSMCs—vascular smooth muscle cells; ↑ elevate; ↓ decrease.
