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. 2009 May 15:1535–1543. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-06668-9.50132-0

Table 127-1.

Causes of Obstructive Biliary Disease in the Tropics

Infectious Noninfectious

  • Leptospirosis

  • Salmonellosis

  • Tuberculosis

  • Syphilis

  • Actinomycosis

  • Helminthic infections
    • Nematodes
      • Ascaris lumbricoides
      • Strongyloides stercoralis
      • Capillaria hepatica
    • Cestodes
      • Echinococcus spp.
    • Trematodes
      • Clonorchis sinensis
      • Opisthorchis viverrini
      • Opisthorchis felineus
      • Fasciola hepatica
      • Fasciola gigantica
      • Paragonimus spp.
  • Protozoa
    • Cryptosporidium parvum
    • Isospora belli
    • Cyclospora cayetanensis
    • Giardia lamblia
    • Microsporidia
  • Neoplasma
    • Metastatic disease
    • Hepatoma
    • Cholangiocarcinoma associated with Clonorchis or Opisthorchis infection

  • Pancreatitis

  • Lymphadenopathy

  • Gallstones