Table 1.
Microbes detected in I. scapularis.
| Organism | Identification methods* | Infection prevalence (developmental stage)** | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria, extracellular | |||
| Acinetobacter spp. | p | 22% (L, N, A) | Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Abraham et al., 2017; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Borrelia burgdorferi | i, d, v, p | 30–72% (N, A) | Burgdorfer et al., 1982; Steiner et al., 2008; Aliota et al., 2014; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
| Borrelia mayonii | i, v, p | 0.65–2.9% (N, A) | Pritt et al., 2016; Cross et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018 |
| Borrelia miyamotoi | p, d | 1–5% (N, A) | Scoles et al., 2001; Tokarz et al., 2010, 2019; Cross et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018 |
| Corneybacterium spp. | p | 2% (L, N, A) | Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Abraham et al., 2017; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | p | 100% (N, A) | Van Treuren et al., 2015; Ross et al., 2018; Zolnik et al., 2018 |
| Enteroccocus spp. | p | ND (L, N) | Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Abraham et al., 2017 |
| Rhizobium spp. | p | 1% (L, N, A) | Zolnik et al., 2016; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Rhodococcus spp. | p | ND (N) | Rynkiewicz et al., 2015; Landesman et al., 2019 |
| Pseudomonas spp. | p | 1–100% (L, N, A) | Benson et al., 2004; Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Zolnik et al., 2016, 2018; Abraham et al., 2017; Ross et al., 2018; Landesman et al., 2019; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Sphingomonadaceae | p | 5% (L, N, A) | Benson et al., 2004; Zolnik et al., 2016, 2018; Abraham et al., 2017; Ross et al., 2018; Landesman et al., 2019; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Staphylococcus spp. | p | 2% (L, N, A) | Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Abraham et al., 2017; Zolnik et al., 2018; Thapa et al., 2019 |
| Streptococcus spp. | p | ND (L, N) | Benson et al., 2004; Narasimhan et al., 2014 |
| Bacteria, intracellular | |||
| Anaplasma phagocytophilum | i, p | 1.9–18% (N, A) | Adelson et al., 2004; Aliota et al., 2014; Cross et al., 2018; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
| Bartonella spp. | p | 13–90% (L, N) | Adelson et al., 2004; Rynkiewicz et al., 2015 |
| Ehrlichia spp. | i, p | 1.3–3.6% (N, A) | Aliota et al., 2014; Cross et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018 |
| Rickettsia buchneri | i, v, p | 46–100% (L, N, A) | Adelson et al., 2004; Narasimhan et al., 2014, 2017; Kurtti et al., 2015; Rynkiewicz et al., 2015; Zolnik et al., 2016; Cross et al., 2018; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
| Wolbachia spp. | p | 8–28% (A) | Zolnik et al., 2016; Cross et al., 2018 |
| Viruses | |||
| Blacklegged tick phleboviruses+ | p | 11–78% (A) | Tokarz et al., 2014a, 2018, 2019; Cross et al., 2018 |
| Deer tick virus (Powassan virus lineage II) | i, p | 0.4–4.7% (N, A) | Thomas et al., 1960; Telford et al., 1997; Dupuis et al., 2013; Aliota et al., 2014; Knox et al., 2017; Campagnolo et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
| I. scapularis-associated viruses+ | p | 0.5–4.5% (A) | Cross et al., 2018; Tokarz et al., 2018 |
| Laurel Lake virus | p | ND (A) | Tokarz et al., 2018 |
| Mononegavirus-like viruses+ | p | 2% (A) | Tokarz et al., 2014b; Cross et al., 2018 |
| South Bay virus | p | 20–52 (A) % | Tokarz et al., 2014b, 2018, 2019; Cross et al., 2018 |
| Suffolk virus | p | 10–17% (A) | Cross et al., 2018; Tokarz et al., 2018, 2019 |
| Fungi | |||
| Beauveria sp. | i | ND (N) | Ginsberg and LeBrun, 1996; Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Cladosporium sp. | i, p | ND (A) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Colletotrichum spp. | i, p | ND (A) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Discostroma tricellulare | i, p | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Hypocrea koningii | i, p | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Metarhizium sp. | i | ND (A) | Benoit et al., 2005; Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Myrothecium verrucaria | i, p | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Paecilomyces spp. | i, p | ND (A) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Penicillium spp. | i | ND (A) | Tuininga et al., 2009; Greengarten et al., 2011 |
| Pestalotiopsis caudata | i | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Phoma sp. | i, p | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Verticillium fungicola | i, p | ND (N) | Tuininga et al., 2009 |
| Verticillium lecanii | i | 4% (A) | Ginsberg and LeBrun, 1996; Zhioua et al., 1999 |
| Nematodes | |||
| Acanthocheilonema spp. | d, p | 22–30% (N, A) | Namrata et al., 2014; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
| Onchocercidae sp. | p | 18% (A) | Cross et al., 2018 |
| Unidentified microfilari | i, v | 0.4% (A) | Beaver and Burgdorfer, 1984 |
| Protozoans | |||
| Babesia microti Babesia odocoilei | p p | 3–20% (N, A) 1–15% (A) | Steiner et al., 2008; Tokarz et al., 2010, 2019; Aliota et al., 2014; Cross et al., 2018 Steiner et al., 2008; Hamer et al., 2014; Tokarz et al., 2019 |
*
i, isolation from I. scapularis; v, microscopic visualization; d, FISH, IFA or other method of indirect detection; p, PCR and sequence-based methods.
**
Infection prevalence of individual ticks varied widely depending on the developmental stage of the tick (L = larva, N = nymph, A = adult) and the geographic location from which samples were collected. Confounding these factors was the method of calculating infection rates, some studies examined individual ticks while others pooled ticks and estimated individual infection rates.
+
Multiple viruses present within this grouping.
ND, not determined.