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. 2020 Apr 14;10:6310. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-62877-0

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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There is no association between a decline in subjective sense of direction and GPS use or reliance since pre-test. Could naturally-occurring spatial memory decline explain greater GPS use since pre-test? If this were to be the case, we would expect a decline in subjective sense of direction to be associated with greater change in GPS use and reliance. There was no significant correlation between change in SBSOD scores and either (A) hours of GPS use since pre-test, r = 0.29, Bootstrap BCa 95% CI [−0.92, 0.98] (covaried with SBSOD at baseline and lifetime GPS experience at baseline); or (B) GPS reliance, r = −0.17, Bootstrap BCa 95% CI [−0.72, 0.58] (covaried with SBSOD at baseline and GPS reliance at baseline). Note that the graphs show plotted residuals from the partial correlations, where covariates were regressed out of the variables of interest. Spatial memory decline was observed without a concurrent decline in subjective sense of direction. Thus, spatial memory decline likely occurred as a result of GPS use, rather than the other way around. SBSOD: Santa Barbara Sense of Direction scale.