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Toll‐like Receptors (TLR). A) Signaling pathway of the TLRs. B) Cellular localization and ligands which activate the various TLRs. LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; CpG: cytidine‐phosphate‐guanosine; MyD88: myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88; NF‐ϰB: nuclear factor kappa beta; MAPK: mitogen‐activated protein kinases; IRF: interferon regulatory factor. (Figure modified from Ref. 104.)
