Table 1.

Significant involvement of fungi in human disease development.

Disease	Disease subtypes	Significant findings that involved fungi	Reference
Inflammatory bowel disease	Crohn's disease (CD)	(i) Fungal dysbiosis is closely related to CD in most of the conducted studies	[9, 47, 84, 101–103]
		(ii) Interkingdom interaction between fungal and bacteria was observed	[9, 47]
Inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBS)	—	(i) Fungal dybiosis, predominant by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans in IBS patients	[51]
Cancers	Colorectal cancer	(i) Fungal dysbiosis is observed in most of the reported studies	[109–112]
Infectious diseases	Hepatitis B	(i) High levels of Aspergillus, Candida, Galactomyces, Saccharomyces, and Chaetomium were identified	[11]
		(ii) Richness and diversity of fungal species is associated with chronic HBV infection
	HIV	(i) C. parvum, C. difficile, and C. albicans are significantly present in HIV-seropositive patients	[114]
		(ii) C. albicans, C. krusei, and C. tropicalis were associated with diarrhea in HIV patients	[115]
		(iii) Fungal dysbiosis and high prevalence of Candida species were observed in HIV patients	[116]
		(iv) Prevalence of Candida in HIV patients without antiretroviral treatment was higher than HIV patients with active antiretroviral treatment	[117]
Noncommunicable diseases	Obesity	(i) Candida, Nakaseomyces, and Penicillium genera were commonly identified in obese subjects	[119]
		(ii) Mucor racemosus and M. fuscus were identified in nonobese patients.
		(iii) Specific fungal composition could be potentially used to distinguish between obese and nonobese patients
	Diabetes	(i) C. albicans is more prevalence in type 1 diabetes	[123–125]
		(ii) C. albicans is more prevalence in type 1 and type 2 diabetes
		(iii) No difference is found between C. albicans colonization in type 1 and type 2 diabetes.	[124]
		(iv) Isolated fungal species from type 1 diabetes patient is more resistant towards antifungal treatment	[125]
Atherosclerosis	—	(i) Phylum Zygomycota, which consists of family Mucoraceae and genus Mucor, was negatively correlated with the risk of cardiovascular disease development through carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) method	[129]
Alcoholic liver disease	—	(i) Decreased in fungal diversity along with Candida overgrowth in alcohol-dependent patients	[130]
Central nervous system diseases	Rett syndrome	(i) High abundance of Candida genus were detected	[134]
	Autism Spectrum disorder	(i) Candida, Malassezia, Aspergillus, and Penicilliun genera were identified	[135]
	Schizophrenia	(i) Increased levels of S. cerevisiae and C. albicans species	[136]
		(ii) Close association of gastrointestinal tract disturbance with elevation of C. albicans species and lower cognitive score	[137]