Table 2.

Content outline

1. Overview of sex differences in cancer

Table 1 Cancers with a clear sex disparity in age-adjusted incidence rates per 100,000 according to SEER explorer incidence data

2. Epigenetics

2.1: Epigenetics and cancer

2.2: Sex differences in epigenetics

2.3: Implications for targeting epigenetics

Fig. 1 Sex-specific epigenetic programming may contribute to differential barriers to tumorigenesis in males and females

3. Metabolism

3.1: Metabolism and cancer

3.2: Sex differences in metabolism

3.3: Implications for targeting metabolism

Fig. 2 Sex differences in metabolic pathways may contribute to sex differences in cancer development

4. p53

4.1: p53 and cancer

4.2 Sex differences in p53

4.3: Implications for targeting p53

5. Cellular senescence

5.1: Senescence and cancer

5.2: Sex differences in senescence

5.3: Implications for targeting senescence

Fig. 3 Sex differences in senescence and SASP may contribute to the increasing sex disparity in cancer incidence with age

6. Immunity

6.1: The immune system in cancer

6.2: Sex differences in the immune system

6.3: Implications for immunotherapy

Fig. 4 Sex differences in immune cells affecting cancer development

7. Angiogenesis

7.1: Angiogenesis and cancer

7.2: Sex differences in angiogenesis

7.3: Implications for targeting tumor angiogenesis

Fig. 5 Sex differences in endothelial cells, endothelial progenitor cells, circulating angiogenic factors, and sex hormones contribute to sex differences in tumor angiogenesis

8. Statistical considerations

Fig. 6 Visualizing statistical interaction

9. Perspectives and significance