Table 2.

Phosphorylation regulation of autophagy-related kinases.

Kinase	Substrate	Site	Function	Ref.
PI3K	PIP2	–	Forms second messenger PIP3	15
PDK1	AKT	Thr308	Activates AKT signaling	22
AKT	TSC2	Ser939/Thr1462	Dissociates TSC1/2 from lysosome and activates Rheb	23
AMPK	TSC2	Thr1227/Ser1345	Regulates cell size and cell survival under energy starvation condition	24
	Raptor	Ser722/Ser792	Mediates a metabolic checkpoint	25
	ULK1	Ser317/Ser555/Ser777	Induces autophagy under glucose starvation	26, 27
	PRAS40	Thr246	Regulates the activity of mTORC1	28
	FOXO3a	Ser413/Ser588	Transcriptionally represses SKP2	29
LKB1	AMPKα	Thr172	Mediates the prolonged and adaptive activation of AMPK following energy stress	30
CaMKKβ	AMPKα	Thr172	Activates AMPK in response to increase in cellular Ca2+	31
TAK1	AMPKα1/2	Thr183/Thr172	Activates AMPKα1/2	32
mTORC1	ULK1	Ser757	Disrupts the ULK1–AMPK interaction	26
	DAP1	Ser3/Ser51	Inhibits autophagy indirectly	33
	AMBRA1	Ser52	Inhibits autophagy indirectly	33, 34
	TFEB	Ser142	Inhibits autophagy indirectly	33, 34
ULK1	Beclin-1	Ser14	Induces autophagy	16
	ATG9	Ser14	Promotes ATG9 trafficking in response to starvation	35
	ATG4B	Ser316	Inhibits ATG4B activity and LC3 processing	36
	AMBRA1	Ser465/Ser635	Regulates dissociation of AmpRa1–Vps34–beclin-1 from the dynein complex	37
	Raptor	Ser855/Ser859/Ser792	Inhibits mTORC1 during starvation	38
	ATG13	Ser318	Promotes its release to damaged mitochondria	39
PKCα	ULK1	Ser423	Prevents autolysosome formation	40
DAPK1	Beclin-1	Thr119	Liberates beclin-1 from BCL-2 and BCL-XL	41
DAPK3	Beclin-1	Ser90	Regulates autophagy in skeletal muscle	42
DAPK2	Raptor	Ser721	Modulates mTORC1 activity and autophagy level	43
JNK1	BCL-2	Thr69/Ser70/Ser87	Dissociates BCL-2 from beclin1	44
PIM2	TSC2	Ser1798	Relieves the suppression of TSC2 on mTORC1	45
	BAD	Ser112	Prevents dissociation of BCL-2 from beclin-1	46
GSK-3	Raptor	Ser859	Regulates mTORC1	47
LRRK2	EndoA	Ser75	Modulates the membrane curvature	48
PINK1	Parkin	Ser65	Leads to the aggregation of parkin from cytoplasm to damaged mitochondria	49

– Not applicable.