Table 1.

Summary of +ssRNA virus membranes and the roles of host proteins and lipids in viral replication and membrane remodelling

Virus	Membrane structure	Size of membrane	Cellular origin	Host factor	Role in replication	Reference
West Nile virus	CM/PC: Randomly folded membranes. VP: Cluster of single membrane vesicles within the lumen of the ER	50–150 nm per vesicle	CM/PC derived from ER and ER‐Golgi intermediate VP: trans‐Golgi	FASN	FASN activity aids RC membrane formation	(Martín‐Acebes et al., 2011
				Cholesterol	RC membrane formation	Mackenzie et al., 2007
				Ceramide	Viral replication	Aktepe et al., 2015
				Lyso‐PChol and Phospholipase A2	Viral replication and VP formation	Liebscher et al., 2018
				Reticulon 3.1A	CM/PC proliferation and VP formation	Aktepe et al., 2017
Dengue virus	VP: Cluster of single and double membrane vesicles within the lumen of the ER	80–150 nm per vesicle	ER	FASN and fatty acids	FASN activity aids RC membrane formation	Heaton et al., 2010
				Cholesterol	Viral entry and replication	Poh et al., 2012
				RTN3.1A	VP architecture	Aktepe et al., 2017
Enterovirus (poliovirus and coxsackievirus)	Cluster of vesicle or rosette‐like structure	70–400 nm	ER, trans‐Golgi, and lysosome	ARF1, GBF1	Viral replication and organelle formation	Hsu et al., 2010
				PI4KIIIIβ	PtdIns4P enrichment in RC membranes	Hsu et al., 2010
				PtdIns4P	Replication protein binding to membranes & RC membrane formation	Hsu et al., 2010
Alphaviruses (Semliki Forest, Sinbis, and Chikungunya virus)	Spherule‐lined cytopathic vacuoles	600–4,000 nm; spherules 50 nm	Endosome and lysosome	PI4K	Membrane formation by stimulating phosphatidyl choline synthesis	Perez, Guinea, & Carrasco, 1991
				Amphiphysin	SH3‐medited interaction with nsP3 promotes membrane curvature via binding to surface lipids	Neuvonen et al., 2011
Coronaviruses (mouse hepatitis virus)	Double membrane vesicles structure	More than 200 nm per vesicle	Probably rough ER or ER–Golgi intermediate	LC3‐I	RC formation by hijacking autophagy	Reggiori et al., 2010
				EDEM1 and OS9	Edemosome formation	Reggiori et al., 2010
Hepatitis C virus	Membranous web: Cluster of single and double membrane vesicles embedded in a membranous matrix	80–150 nm per vesicle	Probably the ER	RTN3.1A	Inhibits HCV replication by interacting with NS4A to inhibit dimerisation	Wu, Ke, Hsu, Yeh, & Horng, 2014
				Phosphatidylinositol 4‐kinase III alpha	Stimulates phosphatidylinositol 4‐phosphate production and replication complex formation	(Berger et al., 2009, Berger, Kelly, Jordan, Tartell, & Randall, 2011)
Tomato bushy stunt virus	Inward vesicular structures like multivesicular bodies (peroxisomal multivesicular bodies)	80–150 nm in diameter	Peroxisome and ER	Vps23p, BroI	p33 recruits these components to the peroxisome which in turn assembles and protects the RC	Barajas, Jiang, & Nagy, 2009
				Vps4p AAA+ ATPase	Aids in the viral RC formation by interacting with the viral RNA	Barajas, de Castro Martín, Pogany, Risco, & Nagy, 2014
				Erg25, SMO1, and 2	Sterol synthesis and RC formation	Sharma, Sasvari, & Nagy, 2010
Brome mosaic virus	Spherular ER membranes	50–70 nm of spherules	Presumably the ER; however, specific membrane sites remain poorly understood	RTN3	RTN is incorporated into the interior spherules and maintains an open channel	Diaz et al., 2010
				ESCRT‐III complex, Snf7	RNA replication attenuation alongside alterations in spherule formation.	Diaz, Zhang, Ollwerther, Wang, & Ahlquist, 2015
				OLE1, ∆9 fatty acid desaturase	Essential for viral replication. Lower levels of phospholipids may affect membrane fluidity	Lee, Ishikawa, & Ahlquist, 2001

Note. CM/PC: convoluted membranes/paracrystalline arrays; FASN: fatty acid synthase; VP: vesicle packet; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; RC: replication complex; PChol: phosphatidylcholine; RTN: reticulon.