Table 2.

Alteration in mechanical compliance of cells and tissues revealed by the AFM studies during disease progression

Pathological changes in E	Disease	Samples	Changes from healthy to pathological condition	References
Increase	Sickle cell disease	Human erythrocytes	1.10 ± 0.40 kPa to 3.0 ± 1.09 kPa	44
	Cardiac hypertrophy	Mice ventricular tissues	13.5 ± 0.665 kPa to 34.1 ± 1.37 kPa	121
	Aging	Sheep aorta	Lamellar region: Young (36 ± 2.22 Kpa) to old (63 ± 2.95 Kpa) Inter-lamellar region: Young (25 ± 3.39 Kpa) to old (63 ± 2.76 kPa)	119
	Aging	Mice articular cartilage	23 ± 1.9 kPa at 6 months to 41 ± 2.9 kPa at 12 months	125
Decrease	Osteoarthritis	Human chondrocytes	0.0960 ± 0.009 N/m to 0.0347 ± 0.005 N/m	48
		Human articular cartilage	83 Kpa to 5.6 kPa	125
		Mice articular cartilage	38 ± 3.4 kPa at 6 months to 20 ± 3.4 kPa at 12 months
		Rabbit chondrocytes	1.43 ± 0.45 Mpa to 0.16 ± 0.08 Mpa	49
	Type 1 diabetes	Mice islets tissue	∼3 kPa to ∼284 Pa	50
	Asthma	Human bronchial tissue	Lower stress: 14.6 ± 8.2 kPa to 7.7 ± 4.0 kPa	47
			Higher stress: 3.5 ± 1.8 kPa to 1.8 ± 1.0 kPa
	HIV-1 virus	Virus particles	Immature HIV-1 virus: 0.93 GPa	128
			Mature HIV-1 virus: 0.44 GPa
	Nerve injury	Mice neurons	Softening of growth cone about 20 to 40 %	131

Abbreviation: E: elastic modulus.