Table 3.

Changes in adhesion properties revealed by the AFM studies during disease progression

Disease	Sample	Functionalization on the probe	Changes from healthy to pathological conditions	References
Type 2 diabetes	Human erythrocyte	None	Increase in AF from 200 ± 38 (young) and 420 ± 25 (old) to 510 ± 63	45
Osteoarthritis	Human articular chondrocytes	None	Decrease in AF from 7 ± 3 to 2 ± 1	48
Sickle cell diseases	Human red blood cells	Integrin αvβ3	Increase in ICAM-4 AF after epinephrine treatment from 10.08 ± 0.85 % to 21.41 ± 2.27 %	27
Inflammatory diseases	Human T-leukemia Jurkat cells and HUVECs	Human junctional adhesion molecule-A antibody	Increase in DA of stimulated HUVEC center from 1 × 10-16 ± 0.42 J to 3 × 10-16 ± 0.55 J and junction from 1 × 10-16 ± 0.45 J to 7 × 10-16 ± 0.58 J	154
Alzheimer's disease	Cys-Aβ42	Aβ peptides	Increase in Aβ-Aβ affinity from 0.40 ± 0.16 mM without zinc to 7.50 ± 2.06 mM with zinc ions	156
Periodontal diseases	Human whole saliva and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria	Staphylococcus aureus bacteria	Cobalt-nickel-chromium for dental alloy AF: 5.9 nN	28
			Feldspathic ceramic AF: 7.7 nN
			Composite resin Amelogen® Plus AF: 7.8 nN
			Denture base polymer for dental prosthesis AF: 11.6 nN

Abbreviations: AF: adhesive force; DA: de-adhesion force; HUVEC: human umbilical vein endothelial cell; ICAM-4: intercellular adhesion molecule-4.