Table 2.
Summary of current human and experimental data on molecular, morphological and functional changes in intestinal epithelial barrier and neuromuscular compartment in metabolic disorders
| Metabolic disorder | Morphofunctional changes in intestinal epithelial barrier | Morphofunctional changes in enteric neuromuscular compartment | Ref. |
| Human investigations | |||
| Obesity | ↑ Circulating LPS | NA | [6] |
| ↓ Occludin and tri-cellulin immunopositivity | |||
| ↑ ZO-1 | |||
| Diabetes | ↑ Intestinal permeability (urinary excretion of lactulose) | NA | [6] |
| Experimental models | |||
| HFD-induced obese mice | ↓ ZO-1, occludin and claudins | ↓ Nitrergic and VIPergic neurons Altered smooth muscle cell excitability | [89-91,93,94,96,97] |
| ↑ Circulating LPS | ↓ Enteric inhibitory neurotransmission | ||
| ↑ Enteric excitatory tachykininergic neurotransmission | |||
| ↑ SP immunopositivity | |||
| ↑ A2B adenosine receptor expression | |||
| Lep ob/ob mice | ↑ Intestinal permeability | NA | [92] |
| Alterations of villi/crypt length | |||
| ↓ TJs and mucus-related genes | |||
| Ob/ob mice | ↑ Paracellular permeability | ↓ Intestinal motor activity | [95] |
| Altered TJs | ↓ ACh receptors | ||
| Delayed intestinal transit rate | |||
↑: Increase; ↓: Decrease; A2B: Adenosine 2B receptor; Ach: Acetylcholine; HFD: High-fat diet; Lep: Leptin; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; NA: Not available; Ob/ob: Obese mice; SP: Substance P; TJ: Tight junction; ZO-1: Zonulin-1.