Table 1.
Host lncRNAs implicated in the innate antiviral immune response
| lncRNAs | Name | Stimuli | Functions/Mechanisms | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PRR‐related signal transduction | Lethe | TNF‐α | lncRNA Lethe competitively binds with NF‐κB and inhibits the interaction between NF‐κB and the promoter, thereby preventing downstream signal transduction. | Rapicavoli et al63 |
| Lsm3b | VSV | Binding of lnc‐Lsm3b restricts the conformational change of the RIG‐I protein, which inactivates the function of RIG‐I, thereby limiting the production of type I interferon IFN‐β. | Jiang et al73 | |
| Pretranscriptional level | lincRNA‐Cox2 | Pam3CKS4, LPS | lincRNA‐Cox2 interacts with hnRNPA/B or the SWI/SNF complex to regulate the expression of the innate immune‐associated cytokines, chemokines, and ISGs that mediate inflammatory responses. | Hu et al74 and Carpenter et al75 |
| NeST | Theiler's virus | NeST binds to WDR5, which is implicated in nucleosomal core histone methylation, thereby negatively regulating the transcription of type II interferons in CD8+ T cells. | Gomez et al76 | |
| NRAV | IAV | NRAV inhibits the transcriptional initiation of antiviral genes by affecting the histone modifications of MxA and IFITM3 (H3K4me3 and H3K27me3). | Ouyang et al77 | |
| Aspro5 | HIV | Aspro5 recruits a variety of histone modification enzymes to form a heterochromatic structure inhibiting the transcriptional activity of the viral promoter. | Saayman et al78 | |
| Transcriptional level | NRON | HIV | A complex of the lincRNA NRON, a scaffold protein, and three NFAT kinases forms a large cytoplasmic RNA‐protein scaffold to inhibit the function of the transcription factor NFAT. | Sharma et al36 |
| NEAT1 | HIV | NEAT1 interacts with the NONO protein to promote the formation of paraspeckles in the nucleus and to deactivate the splicing factor SFPQ in the transcription of IL‐8. | Imamura et al37 | |
| lincRNA‐EPS | LPS | lincRNA‐EPS controls nucleosome localization and inhibits IRG transcription by interacting with heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein L. | Atianand et al79 | |
| sfRNA | Flaviviruses | sfRNA prevents the activation of the IFN‐β promoter and the initiation of transcription by inhibiting the phosphorylation of IRF3. | Pijlman et al80 and Chang et al81 | |
| sfRNA | Dengue virus | sfRNA binds to the host RNA binding protein and CAPRIN1 and inhibits the transcription of IFITM2 and PKR; sfRNA also binds to the ubiquitin ligase TRIM25 and negatively regulates RIG‐I expression. | Manokaran et al82 and Bidet et al83 | |
| Posttranscriptional level | NEAT1 | HIV | NEAT1 inhibits nuclear export of HIV‐I mRNAs and reduces replication efficiency in viral cells. | Zhang et al84 |
| ISG20 | Sendai virus; IAV; poly I:C | Acts as a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) of ISG20 mRNA, lncRNA ISG20 binds to miRNA‐326, releases its transcriptional repression of ISG20 mRNA, and activates the innate immune response. | Chai et al85 | |
| Metabolic level | ACOD1 | VSV | ACOD1 binds to GOT2, an important aminotransferase during metabolism in the cytoplasm, and elevates the activity of GOT2, which in turn regulates the metabolism of L‐aspartate and α‐ketoglutarate, thereby promoting viral replication. | Wang et al86 |