Table 1.
VLP Vaccines and VLPs Developed for Display of Heterologous Epitopes
| Platform | Composition | Vaccine Target | Stage of Development | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Poliovirus | VP0, VP3, VP1 | Poliovirus | Particles in development | 120 |
| HBV | Energix‐B | HBV | Testing in humans | 25,26,30 |
| HBV | HBsAg, envelope (major S, minor pre‐S2, pre‐S1) | HBV | Testing in humans | 27, 28, 29,121 |
| HPV | L1 and L2 | HPV | Approved | 31, 32, 33, 34,122,123 |
| Rotavirus | Variety | Rotavirus | Animal studies | 124, 125, 126 |
| HEV | Structural protein with truncated N terminus | HEV | Testing in humans | 39, 40, 41, 42 |
| Flu | HA, NA, and matrix proteins | Flu | Animal studies | 47, 48, 49 |
| HCV | Core, E1, E2 | HCV | Testing in nonhuman primates | 54, 55, 56, 57 |
| HIV/SIV | HIV or SIV capsid, and HIV immune epitopes (gag, pol) | HIV | Animal studies | 20,50,127,128 |
| Ebola virus and Marburg virus | Glycoprotein and matrix protein VP40 | EBOV and MARV | Testing in nonhuman primates | 58, 59, 60 |
| Norwalk virus | Major capsid protein | Norwalk virus | Testing in humans; potential as oral | 43, 44, 45 |
| SARS | S, E, M, and N structural proteins | SARS | Particles in development | 61 |
| FHV | FHV capsid with E1 of HCV | HCV | Particles in development | 112,113 |
| FHV | Core and E1 protein epitopes and HBsAg epitope on FHV capsid | HBV/HCV | Animal studies | 114,115 |
| FHV | FHV capsid with neutralizing domain from V3 loop of HIV‐1 | HIV | Animal studies | 116 |
| FHV | FHV capsid with ANTXR 2 PA‐binding domain | Anthrax—both protective and as a treatment | Animal studies | 65 |
| FHV | FHV capsid with CCR5 (HIV receptor) | HIV | Testing in humans | 129 |
| HBV | HBV core antigen and HIV env protein, conserved region of gp41, or p34 peptide | HIV | Animal studies | 69, 70, 71 |
| HBV | HBc with CS protein of malaria | Plasmodium falciparum | Testing in humans | 76,77 |
| HBV | HBsAg with env protein of DENV | Dengue virus | Animal studies | 118,119 |
| HBV | Epitope of FMDV on HBcAg | Foot and mouth disease virus | Animal studies | 73 |
| HBV | HBcAg with immunogenic HCMV epitope | Human cytomegalo virus | Animal studies | 130 |
| HBV | PUU nucleocapsid protein on HBc | Puumala hantavirus | Animal studies | 75 |
| HBV | HBc with M2 protein of influenza A | Influenza | Animal studies | 72 |
| HBV | HBcAg with CTL epitopes of HPV | HPV | Animal studies | 131 |
| HEV | HEV VLPs with B cell epitope tag | Stimulate mucosal immunity | Animal studies | 132 |
| HPV | L1 of HPV with SIV gag, HIV tat, and HIV rev | HIV | Testing in nonhuman primates | 79 |
| M13 | M13 version of S3Pvac | Taenia solium | Animal studies | 106 |
| M13 | Parasitic worm protein on M13 | Schistosoma japonicum | Animal studies | 107 |
| NDV | NP and M proteins of NDV with RSV G protein | RSV | Animal studies | 133 |
| Qβ | Qβ with allergen Der p1 | Allergen | Testing in humans | 134 |
| Qβ | Qβ with nicotine | Nicotine | Testing in humans | 2 |
| Qβ | CCR5 on Qβ | HIV | Animal studies | 135 |
| AP205 | Various heterologous epitopes on AP205 | Salmonella typhi, HIV, Influenza A | Animal studies | 108 |
| CPMV | CPMV with VP2 capsid protein of CPV | Canine parvovirus | Animal studies | 84,85 |
| CPMV | CPMV with outer membrane protein F of Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Animal studies | 89,90,101 |
| CPMV | Mink enteritis virus protein on CPMV | Mink enteritis virus | Animal studies | 86 |
| CPMV | Staphylococcus aureus protein on CPMV | Staphylococcus aureus | Animal studies | 91 |
| CPMV | Gp41 peptide inserted onto CPMV | HIV | Animal studies | 87,88 |
| CPMV | Outer membrane protein F of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on CPMV | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Animal studies | 90 |
| Tobacco mosaic virus | Peptides from VP1 of FMDV on TMV | Foot and mouth disease virus | Animal studies | 95,96 |
| Tobacco mosaic virus | Peptide from spike protein of murine hepatitis virus on TMV | Murine hepatitis virus | Animal studies | 94 |
| Tobacco mosaic virus | Outer membrane protein F from Pseudomonas aeruginosa on TMV | Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Animal studies | 97 |
| Cucumber mosaic virus | R10 epitope of HCV on CMV | Hepatits C virus | Animal studies | 98 |
| Alfalfa mosaic virus | G protein peptide from RSV on AlMV coat protein | RSV | Testing in nonhuman primates | 100 |
| PapMV | LCMV peptide p33 on PapMV | LCMV | Animal studies | 64 |
| MS2 | Peptide from V3 of HIV gp20 or CCR5 on MS2 coat protein | HIV | Animal studies | 105 |
| HBV | Peptide from Bordatella pertussis on HBV core protein | Bordatella pertussis | Animal studies | 136 |
| HBV | Peptide from SPAG‐1 of Theileria annulata on HBcAg | Theileria annulata | Animal studies | 137,138 |
| ISCOMs | H1N1 peptide | H1N1 | Animal studies | 139,140 |
| ISCOMs | Core protein IMX | Hepatitis C virus | Testing in nonhuman primates | 141,142 |
| ISCOMs | Gp120, env, or gag peptides | HIV | Testing in nonhuman primates | 143, 144, 145, 146 |
| ISCOMs | Peptide F and G from RSV | RSV | Animal studies | 147,148 |
| ISCOMs | HSV‐2 antigen | Herpes simplex virus | Animal studies | 149 |
| ISCOMs | Rotavirus antigen | Rotavirus | Animal studies | 150,151 |
| Liposomes | Hepatitis A peptide | Hepatitis A virus | Testing in humans | 152, 153, 154 |
| Liposomes | Peptide from circumsporosoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum | Plasmodium falciparum | Testing in humans | 155 |
| Liposomes | Ha and Na from influenza | Influenza | Testing in humans | 156 |
| Liposomes | Gp120 from HIV | HIV | Animal studies | 157,158 |
| Liposomes | Toxins | Diptheria or tetanus | Animal studies | 159,160 |
| Liposomes | HA from influenza | Influenza | Animal studies | 161 |
| Virosomes | HA and NA from influenza | Influenza | Approved | 162 |
| Virosomes | Inactivated Hepatitis A virus | Hepatitis A virus | Animal studies | 153,163 |
| PLG microspheres | Whole cell lysate of Helicobacter pylori | Helicobacter pylori | Animal studies | 164 |
| PLG microspheres | Tetanus toxoid | Tetanus | Animal studies | 165 |
| PLG microspheres | HBsAg | Hepatitis B virus | Animal studies | 166,167 |
| PLG microspheres | Plasmodium falciparum antigen | Plasmodium falciparum | Animal studies | 168 |
| PLG microspheres | Yersinia pestis F1 antigen | Yersinia pestis | Animal studies | 169 |
| PLG microspheres | Phosphorylcholine antigen of Salmonella typhimuriun | Salmonella typhimurium | Animal studies | 170 |
| Nanoemulsion | Influenza A | Influenza | Animal studies | 171 |
| Nanoemulsion | Protective antigen from Bacillus anthracis | Anthrax | Animal studies | 172 |
| Nanoemusion | Gp120 from HIV | HIV | Animal studies | 173 |
| Nanoemulsion | Vaccinia virus | Smallpox | Animal studies | 174 |
| Nanoemulsion | HBsAg | Hepatitis B virus | Animal studies | 175 |
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