Table 3.

Main techniques and betalains encapsulation matrices that have promoted its stabilization

Encapsulation techniques	Matrices	Source of betalains /extraction method	Encapsulation efficiency	Stability after encapsulation	Applications	References
Hydration-sonication	Lecithin (nanoliposomes)	Betanin (red beet extract diluted with dextrin)/commercial	80.35%	Improved the in vitro digestion stability of betanin	Diabetes treatment	Amjadi et al. (2019)
Spray dried	Cactus mucilage	Pulp and skin of Escontria chiotilla and Stenocereus queretaroensis /magnetic stirring and maceration	Information not presented	Betalains retention was more than 90% after three months of storage	Food coloring	Delia et al. (2019)
Ionic gelation	Calcium alginate	Betalain-rich extract of Opuntia ficus-indica fruit/maceration	Information not presented	After 30 days, the sample colour change	Natural colorant in gummy Candies	Otálora et al. (2019)
Gelation	Sodium alginate	Bougainvillea bracts (Bougainvillea spectabilis)/maceration	88.63–89.82%	The encapsulation is efficient to protect and release the bioactive compounds from bougainvillea extracts	Bioactive pigments for applications in food	Orozco et al. (2019)
Ionotropic gelation	Ca(II)-alginate with sucrose and dextran	Stems/leaves of Beta vulgaris/maceration	15–60% (depends on the formulation)	Good conservation of the antioxidant activity (up to 70%)	Antioxidant	Calvo et al. (2018)
Spray drying	Modified potato starch and commercial starch	Fruit of pitaya (Stenocereus pruinosus)/maceration	Information not presented	Modified starch-based microcapsules showed better potential pigmentation and greater stability during storage for 32 days at 4 °C in yogurt with pH 4.6 than commercial starch-based microcapsules	Pigmenting agent of yogurt	Vargas et al. (2018)
Hydration-sonication	Lecithin (nanoliposomes)	Betanin/commercial	80.35%	Betanin stability decreases by approximately 10% for 60 days of storage	Gummy candies as a food model	Amjadi et al. (2018)
Spray dried	Maltodextrin, inulin, and whey protein isolate	Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.)/juice was obtained with a food processing centrifuge	Information not presented	The use of whey protein isolate together with inulin achieved high stability	Food coloring	Do Carmo et al. (2018)
Spray drying and ionic gelation	maltodextrin-cactus cladode mucilage and sodium alginate	Orange pulp fruits Opuntia megacantha/maceration	Information not presented	Betaxanthins encapsulated with maltodextrin-cactus cladode mucilage by spray drying were more stable at 18 °C and 57% RH for 62 days	Natural colorant	Otálora et al. (2018)
Microchannel emulsification	Soybean oil	E162, red beetroots (Beta vulgaris, subsp. vulgaris) and Fresh beetroot juice/commercial, mechanic, mechanic	Information not presented	Betanin from different sources encapsulated in W/O/W emulsion showed to be temperature sensitive	Information not presented	Pagano et al. (2018)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin	Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)/mechanic	100%	The oxygen consumption of the microparticles with betacyanin was higher when the temperature increased (80–90 °C) accompanied by a decrease in color intensity causing pigment degradation	Information not presented	Aguilar et al. (2018)
Freeze drying	Gum arabic and maltodextrin	Air parts of S. fruticosa	86.50–92.30%	After the 8 weeks storage to 60 °C, 25.87% of the betalains was lost	Information not presented	Mohamed et al. (2018)
Freeze dried and spray dried	Combination of maltodextrin and xanthan gum	Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.)/mechanic	Information not presented	Stable for 7 days at different pH and dried by freeze dryer	Suggested as colorants for use in food products	Atigo et al. (2018)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin	Yellow pulp fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica	Information not presented	Excellent preservation in the dark, even after 28 days at 4 °C. However, the presence of light contributed to betaxanthin deterioration	Natural colorant in yogurt and soft-drink	Fernández et al. (2018)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin and pectin	Pitaya juice (Stenocereus griseus)/mechanic	Information not presented	The particles have critical values at a storage temperature of 25° C. Below these conditions, the particles can be stored while maintaining their stability	Functional foods as a colorant	García et al. (2017)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin and resistant maltodextrin	Pitaya juice (dragon fruit)/mechanic	Information not presented	Storage for 3 months at 4 °C, 25 °C and 40 °C exhibited higher betanin degradation in resistant maltodextrin at all temperatures with corresponding lower half-lives compared to maltodextrin	Natural colorant in sweets	Shaaruddin et al. (2017)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin	Red-violet fruits of Basella rubra L./ maceration	Information not presented	Stable after two years of storage without light at 4 °C	Use in food industry as a natural colourant	Kumar and Giridhar (2016)
Freeze drying	Soy protein	Beetroot pomace (Beta vulgaris L., cv. ‘Bicor’)/ultrasonic bath	86.14%	Stability was reduced by 24% after three months of storage at 25 °C	Could be used in the pharmaceutical industry and as food additives	Tumbas Šaponjac et al. (2016)
Emulsion	Sunflower oil and whey protein isolate	Beetroot juice/Mechanic	98–100%	The stability of the double emulsions prepared from beetroot juice, sunflower oil, and whey protein isolate is related to their high viscosity that prevents creaming and coalescence	Meat products	Eisinaite et al. (2016)
Freeze drying	Maltodextrin-gum Arabic and maltodextrin-pectin	Red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) peels	90–95%	The encapsulation of betalains in carbohydrate matrices stabilizes them in addition to preserving and improving their biological activities	In vitro evaluation as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic	Rodriguez et al. (2016)
Freeze drying	Maltodextrin (MD), gum Arabic (GA), gum Arabic-midified starch (GA-MS), modified starch-chitosan (MS-CH) and modified starch-maltodextrin-chitosan (MS-MD-CH)	Beetroot coloring extracts/beetroots extract were extracted with water in a commercial juice extractor	Information not presented	MD with GA proved to be effective agents for beetroot coloring extracts microencapsulation with a high half-life period, while that the incorporation study demonstrated higher stability for food model of low moisture such as chewing gum prepared with extracts encapsulated in GA–MS	Natural colorants in a chewing gum model system	Chranioti et al. (2015)
Spray drying	Gelatin and maltodextrin	Purple cactus pear fruits (Opuntia stricta)	18.07% to 57.30% depending on the ratio of gelatin and maltodextrin	The use of the maltodextrin-gelatin complex generated directly microcapsules with better stability to the temperature greater than 200 °C which provides a good protection to the bioactive components	Information not presented	Castro et al. (2015)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin and cladode mucilage and maltodextrin	Purple fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica/maceration	Information not presented	The encapsulation of betalains in maltodextrin was more stable at 57% and 75% RH, with a half-life of 117.4 and 103.4 days	Natural colorant	Otálora et al. (2015)
Spray drying	Soybean protein isolate, maltodextrin, inulin and mixtures	Cactus pear fruits (O. ficus-indica)/Pressing	99%	The protein and polysaccharide blends used as encapsulating agents for cactus pear pulp improved the polyphenol encapsulation and betalain stability at 60 °C as shown by the lower degradation rate constant	Food ingredients for functional foods	Robert et al. (2015)
Spray drying	Soluble fiber [(1 → 3) (1 → 4) β-d-glucan]	Juice of red cactus pear/Information not presented	Information not presented	The addition of encapsulated betalains to extrudates showed greater pigment retention at 80° C-100° C at a cutting speed of 225 rpm	Extruded products	Ruiz et al. (2015)
Spray dried	Capsul	Pear fruits (Opuntia ficus-indica)/Maceration and clarified by microfiltration and ultrafiltration	98%	Microparticles with ultrafiltrated extract had better betanin stability 60 °C	Natural colourants for healthy foods	Vergara et al. (2014)
Spray drying and freeze drying	Maltodextrin, guar gum, gum Arabic, pectin and xanthangum with different concentration	Red beet roots/Maceration	Freeze drying results from showed higher recovery of betalains. Variation with xanthan gum showed increase up to 65% of betalains content than the control	Betalains with xanthan gum showed 21% more stability than the control (maltodextrin) Freeze drying encapsulation with xanthan showed a higher recovery of betalains by up to 1.3 times than spray drying encapsulation	Powdered food grade colorant	Ravichandran et al. (2014)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin, Arabic gum and a mixture of both	Beetroot juice/Information not presented	The highest content of pigments was observed for microcapsules obtained by the feed flux of the raw material 0.3 cm3/s and Arabic gum as a carrier	The gum arabic microcapsules with beet pigments were more stable compared to maltodextrin	Natural colorant	Janiszewska, (2014)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin and chitosan	Violet flowers of Lampranthus Productos and Beta vulgaris roots/Mechanical and membrane separated	Information not presented	Maltodextrin encapsulation strongly increased the stability of the pigment, which remained stable for months in the absence of light, at temperatures of − 20 and 4 °C	Food applications	Gandía-Herrero et al. (2013)
Spray drying	Gum Arabic	Beetroot juice/commercial juice extractor	Information not presented	The powder stored at aw < 0.521 to 30 °C presented the greatest stability	Antioxidant and as a red colorant	Pitalua et al. (2010)
Spray drying	Maltodextrin and inulin	Cactus pear fruits (Opuntia ficus-indica)/maceration	Information not presented	Indicaxanthins in all systems showed a slow degradation during storage at 60 °C and were more stable than betacyanins	Incorporation into functional foods	Saénz et al. (2009)
Spray drying	Dried glucose syrup	Fruit juice of Opuntia stricta/mechanic	Information not presented	The encapsulated dye stored at room temperature maintained 98% of its color after one month	Natural colorant	Obón et al. (2009)
Freeze drying	Pullulan and maltodextrin samples of different molecular weight	Beetroot pigment/commercial	Information not presented	The wall materials used for encapsulation of the pigment were effective in decreasing the rate of degradation, however the most stable among the three matrices was pullulan	Natural colorant	Serris and Biliaderis (2001)