Table 3. General animal models for influenza virus.
| Animal model | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Mice | Low cost (purchase, maintenance, and reproduction) |
Not for natural host of influenza virus |
| Well-characterized genetics; microarray and knockouts | Anatomy and histology of respiratory tract and pattern of influenza virus attachment dissimilar to humans | |
| Minimal host variability and background pathology of inbred SPF strains | Most strains demonstrate hypothermia, but not real fever | |
| Availability of molecular virology/Immunology reagent | ||
| Unsuitable for live-attenuated vaccines | ||
| Unsuitable for transmission experiments | ||
| Ferrets | Pathology of influenza viral pneumonia comparable to humans | Variable outcome results depend on the age, inoculum titer, and volume |
| Anatomy and histology of respiratory tract moderately similar to humans and similar pattern of influenza virus attachment | Very limited ferret specific immunological reagents | |
| Suitable for transmission experiments | Require special caging; No SPF animals, so need to confirm Aleutian disease and initial influenza seronegative status, | |
| Apt animal size for blood and tissue sampling | Outbred, Relatively expensive | |
| Few molecular biological reagents available | ||
| Guinea Pigs | Human and Avian influenza virus isolates replicate without prior adaptation | Variable host responses, Need to confirm initial influenza seronegative status |
| Suitable for transmission experiments | Pathology of influenza viral pneumonia dissimilar to humans | |
| Usually no clinical symptoms after virus challenge, | ||
| Non-human primates | Pathology of influenza viral pneumonia comparable to humans | Expensive, Need of animal handling experience |
| May display similar clinical symptoms to humans | No SPF animals, thus need to confirm initial influenza seronegative status | |
| Anatomy and histology of respiratory tract and immune response similar to humans | May different susceptible to human influenza viruses | |
| Many available molecular biological reagents and cross-reaction with human reagents | May different disease outcome and clinical signs dependent on species, virus strain, and inoculation routes | |
| Similar immune responses as humans | Need to confirm the sialic acid receptor distribution and pattern of viral attachment in respiratory tracts |
Abbreviation: SPF, specific pathogen free.