Table 1.
Pathogens that have been reported to be indirectly transmitted from wild birds including migratory species to humans
| Microorganism(s) | Reported transmission to human (indirect transmission) (n = 10) | Migratory bird species (formal family names for each bird species can be found in the appendix) | Geographic area |
|---|---|---|---|
| (I) Bacteria | |||
| Chlamydiaceae | |||
| Chlamydophila psittaci | Ornithosis17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 | Egrets (Ardea Alba), grackles (Quiscalus), gulls (Larus), migratory waterfowl species (Anatidae), passerines (Passeriformes), pigeons (Columbidae), psittacine birds (Psittaciformes), raptors (North American raptors), shorebirds (North American shorebirds), wild ducks (Anatidae), and others | Worldwide |
| Enterobacteriaceae | |||
| Escherichia coli | Bloody diarrhea [Vero cytotoxin-producing E. coli O157, Shiga toxin stx2f-containing E. coli O128 strain)23, 24]25, 26 | Finches (Fringillidae), gulls (Larus), pigeons (Columbidae), sparrows (Passeridae), starlings (Sturnidae) | Worldwide |
| Salmonella (enterica typhimurium) | Salmonellosis (enteritis)27, 28, 29, 30 | Wild crows (Corvidae), ducks (Anatidae), gulls (Larus), passerines (Passeriformes), raptorial birds (North American raptors), songbirds (Passeriformes), terns (Sternidae), waterfowls (Anatidae) | Worldwide |
| Mycobacteriaceae | |||
| Mycobacterium (avium, ulcerans) | Regarding M. avium it is generally believed and occasionally reported that man (especially immunocompromised, elderly) can contract the disease from birds, but this has not been fully clarified.31, 32, 33 | Crows (Corvidae), raptors (North American raptors), rooks (Corvus frugilegus), wild ducks (Anatidae), wild pigeons (Columbidae) | Worldwide |
| Possible transmission of M. ulcerans to humans through contaminated water from feces of waterfowls (Anatidae)34 | |||
| Spirochaetaceae | Lyme disease30, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 | ||
| Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato genomic species | American Robins (Turdus migratorius), cardinals, songbirds (Passeriformes), sparrows (Passeridae), thrushes (Turdidae) and other ground foraging birds, waterfowl (Anatidae) | North America, Europe | |
| (II) Fungi | |||
| Cryptococcus | Yes (wild pigeons)42, 43, 44, 45, 46 | Psittacine birds (Psittaciformes), starling (Sturnidae), wild pigeons (Columbidae) | Europe, South America, Asia |
| (III) Viruses | |||
| Flaviviridae | |||
| West Nile virus | Yes3, 30, 47, 48, 49 | North American shorebirds, common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula), doves, hawks, house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus), songbirds (Passeriformes), raptors (North American raptors), owls (Strigidae), and various corvids (crows, jays, Corvidae) | Africa Europe, Asia, America |
| St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) | Yes3, 49, 50, 51 | North American shorebirds, common grackles (Quiscalus), doves, hawks, house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus), songbirds (Passeriformes), owls (Strigidae), and various corvids (crows, jays, magpies) | America |
| Western Equine Encephalitis virus (WEEV) | Yes49 | North American shorebirds, quails (Coturnix) | America |
| Orthomyxoviridae | |||
| Influenza A virus | To date, only domestic poultry are known to have played a major role in the transmission cycle of the H5N1 virus from animals to humans.52 However, there is also the potential contribution of other hosts like carnivores e.g cats to both virus transmission and adaptation to mammals.53, 54 Dead or moribund cats were found to be infected with H5N1 virus soon after the virus was detected in wild birds in Germany.53 This suggests that H5N1 virus can be transmitted from wild birds to cats53 whereas in another report avian influenza A virus subtype H5N1 was transmitted to domestic cats by close contact with infected birds.54 | Dabbling ducks (e.g common Mallard-Anas platyrhynchos), geese (Anserinae), gulls (Larus), swans (Cygninae), guillemots (Uria aalge), mountain hawk eagles (Spizaetus nipalensis) North American Blue-winged Teal (Spatula discors), shearwaters (Procellariidae), terns (Sternidae). Wild aquatic birds are regarded as the principal reservoir of influenza viruses, and migrating ducks (Anatidae) disseminate influenza viruses worldwide | Worldwide |
| However, there has been no documented case with wild migratory bird to human transmission although the theoretical risk exists.55 | |||
| Serologic evidence of avian influenza infection in 1 duck hunter and 2 wildlife professionals with extensive histories of wild waterfowl (Anatidae) and game bird exposure has been reported.56 | |||
| There is an association (not necessarily causal) between recreational contact with H5N1 contaminated water and the onset of confirmed human H5N1 disease in 3 cases.53, 57, 58 In one of these cases asymptomatic ducks may have shed virus into the pond.53 | |||
| Possible direct transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza in family cluster in Azerbaijan.16 Occupational exposure to avian species may increase veterinarians' risk of avian influenza virus infection.59 | |||
| Transmission can cause: Respiratory infection, keratoconjuctivitis, diarrhea, encephalitis30, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66 | |||