Table 2.
Pathogens with theoretical risk for transmission (but no reports of actual direct/indirect transmission) from wild birds including migratory species to humans
| Microorganism(s) | Potential for transmission to humans exists (n = 50) | Migratory bird species | Geographic area |
|---|---|---|---|
| (I) Bacteria | |||
| Gram-positive cocci | |||
| Enterococcus | Possible spread through polluted water67, 68; transmission has been reported from other birds69, 70, 71 | Ducks (Anatidae), seagulls (Larus), waterfowls (Anatidae) and other migratory birds such as quails (Coturnix) | Worldwide |
| Staphylococcus | Possible through faecal pollution of environmental water samples72 | Ducks (Anatidae), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), passerines (Passeriformes), seagulls (Larus), and other migratory birds including quails (Coturnix), raptors (North American raptors) | Worldwide |
| Gram-positive rods | |||
| Clostridium perfringens | Possible through accidental ingestion of contaminated water73; food-borne enteritis has been reported from non-migratory birds74 | Crows (Corvidae), ducks (Anatidae), gulls(Larus), Pelicans (Pelecanus) and marine birds, raptors (North American raptors), shorebirds (North American shorebirds), waterfowls (Anatidae) | Europe, Asia |
| Listeria monocytogenes | Possible through accidental ingestion of contaminated water75 | Crows (corvus), gulls (Larus), rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and other migratory birds | America, Asia |
| Enterobacteriaceae | Enteritis30, 76 | Crows (corvus), ducks (Anatidae), gulls (Larus), magpies, (Corvidae) pigeons (Columbidae), pheasants, starlings (Sturnidae), terns (Sternidae), wagtails (Motacilla), waterfowls (Anatidae) and other migratory species | Worldwide |
| Yersinia species | |||
| Campylobacteraceae | |||
| Campylobacter jejuni | Intestinal campylobacteriosis.30, 77, 78 Whether waterfowl (Anatidae) have a role in the dissemination of Campylobacter spp. that results in increased human disease is likely to be elucidated through development and greater use of typing methods.79 Typing might allow links to be established between isolates of avian, environmental, and human origin.79 | Migrating ducks (Anatidae), passerine birds e.g. crows (corvus), pigeons (Columbidae) and seagulls (Larus), sparrows (Passeridae) | Europe, North America, Asia |
| Helicobacter spp. | Enteritis (Helicobacter canadensis).80, 81 | Geese (Anserinae), gulls (Larus), passerines (Passeriformes), terns (Sternidae), various wild birds | North America, Europe, Australia |
| Possible transmission of H. pylori by contaminated water from feces of waterfowls (Anatidae)82 | |||
| Other gram negative bacilli (Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, etc.) | Possible through faecal pollution of environmental water samples72, 83 | Geese (Anserinae), gulls (Larus) | Worldwide |
| Anaerobic bacteria | Possible through faecal pollution of environmental water samples e.g. gulls (Larus)84 | Geese (Anserinae), seagulls (Larus), swans (Cygninae), wild ducks (Anatidae) | Worldwide |
| Anaplasmataceae | Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis85, 86, 87 | Passerine birds (Passeriformes) American Robins (Turdus migratorius), robins, songbirds (Passeriformes) veery (Catharus fuscescens), American warbler | North America, Europe, Asia |
| Anaplasma phagocytophilum | |||
| Mycobacterium species | Tuberculosis.88 Possible transmission of mycobacterium from humans to birds has been reported through close contact between humans and pet birds but it is not known if humans can acquire the infection from birds.88 | Green-winged macaw, psittacines (Psittaciformes)88, 89 | |
| M. tuberculosis | |||
| Rickettsiaceae | Possible through ticks 90, 91 | Pigeons (Columbidae) | Europe, Asia |
| Coxiella burnetii | |||
| Vibrionaceae | |||
| Vibrio cholerae | Cholera, non-cholera Vibrio infections92, 93 | Wild aquatic birds (Anatidae), gulls (Larus) | North America |
| (II) Viruses | |||
| Bunyaviridae | Possible transmission through ticks and transmission has been reported for other birds94, 95 | Crows (Corvidae), wild aquatic birds (Anatidae), passerines (Passeriformes), rooks, (Corvus frugilegus) | Europe, Asia, Africa |
| Nairoviruses: Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) | |||
| Coronaviridae | Serological evidence in humans exposed to birds has been reported96 | Passerines (Passeriformes), pheasants (Phasianidae) | Worldwide |
| Avian infectious bronchitis virus, other coronaviruses | |||
| Flaviviridae | Worldwide | ||
| Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) | Yes97, 98, 99 | Colonial ardeids (Ardeidae), herons (Ardeidae), marsh birds, quails (Coturnix) | |
| Other flaviviruses Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), Usutu virus (USUV) | Yes (MVEV)100, 101 | Blackbirds (Turdus merula), wading birds, crows and magpies (Corvidae) (Usutu virus), Pelecaniformes (MVE virus) | |
| NR (USUV) | |||
| Sindbis virus | Ockelbo disease,102, 103 Pogosta disease,104 plus possible transmission to humans as migratory birds are hosts of mosquitoes which are vectors for these viruses | Blackbird (Turdus merula), carrion crow (Corvus corone), passerine birds (Passeriformes) wild grouse (Tetraonidae), wild ducks (Anatidae) | |
| Tick-borne Encephalitis virus (TBE) | Possible through ticks 105, 106, 107, 108 | Blackbirds (Turdus merula), sandpipers (Scolopacidae), wild mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), wild grouse (Tetraonidae), other wild birds | Europe, America |
| Herpesviridae | Marek's virus (transported by wild birds) has been associated with multiple sclerosis in humans.109, 110 | Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnic japonica), passerines (Passeriformes), pigeons (Columbidae), raptors (North American raptors), wild anseriforms (Anatidae), geese (Anserinae), swans (Cygninae) | Europe, Asia, North America, and Africa |
| Anatid herpesvirus 1, (duck plague virus), Marek virus | |||
| Paramyxoviridae | |||
| Newcastle disease virus (NDV, avian parainfluenza virus 1, paramyxovirus-1) | Serological evidence in humans exposed to migratory birds has been reported.96 Can cause self-limiting conjunctivitis as occupational exposure to affected poultry | Cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae), gulls (Larus), passerines (Passeriformes), pelicans (Pelecanus), raptors (North American raptors), waterfowls (Anatidae) | Worldwide |
| Other Paramyxoviridae (pneumoviruses) | NR | Gulls (Larus), waterfowl (Anatidae) | Europe, Africa, Asia |
| Picornaviridae | |||
| Egg drop syndrome virus | Possible through faecal pollution of environmental water samples with wildfowl droppings111, 112 | Coots (Fulica), grebes (Podicipedidae), herring gulls (Larus argentatus), migratory ducks (Anatidae), owls (Strigidae), storks (Ciconiidae), swans (Cygninae) | Worldwide |
| Foot-and-mouth disease virus | NR but according to some studies birds do not have an important role in the transmission of enteroviruses113 | House-sparrows (Passer domesticus), seagulls (Laridae), starlings (Sturnidae) | Europe |
| Reoviridae | Not reported but evidence for transmission to mammals111, 114, 115, 116 | Wild geese (Anserinae), wild woodcocks (Scolopax) | Asia, Africa, Europe, America |
| Avian rotavirus, orbivirus and other spp. | |||
| Togaviridae | |||
| Eastern (EEE) and Western (WEE) equine encephalitis viruses | Possible through mosquitoes that are vectors for these viruses117, 118 | Cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), finches (Fringillidae), American Robins (Turdus migratorius, smaller species of Passeriformes, several trans-Gulf migrant starlings (Sturnidae), waterbirds (Anatidae) | America |
| Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) | Possible through mosquitoes that are vectors for these viruses 119, 120 | Nestling birds such as Cliff swallows, North American shorebirds, songbirds (Passeriformes), wild ducks (Anatidae) | South to Central America |
| (III) Parasites | |||
| Coccidia (Eimeria) | Possible through contamination with faecal material121 | Cranes (Gruidae), owls (Strigidae), wild pigeons (Columbidae), waterfowls (Anatidae) | North America, Asia, Africa |
| Cryptosporidium | Has been reported for other non-migratory birds122 | Cranes (Gruidae), exotic seagulls (Larus), wild anseriforms: ducks (Anatidae), geese (Anserinae), swans (Cygninae) and wild birds (order Passeriformes, Phasianidae, Fringillidae, and Icteridae), waterfowl species (Anatidae) | America, Africa, Asia |
| Helminths parasites | Possible food-borne through eating small water fish.123 | Gulls (Larus), ducks (Anatidae), passerines (Passeriformes), waterfowl species (Anatidae) | Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, America |
| Cercarial dermatitis (swimmer's itch) due to exposure to marine schistosomes124 | |||
| Sarcocystis | Possible through contaminated water125 | Cowbirds (Molothrus), exotic birds, mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), passerines (Passeriformes), wading birds, wild anseriforms (Anatidae), geese (Anserinae), swans (Cygninae) | America, Africa, Europe |