Table 2.

Examples of established organ infection and inflammation models.

	Device Types	Description of the stated infection models	Cell/Tissue types	Incorporated bacteria/virus types	Refs
Lung	Organ-on-a-chip	Using a lung-on-a-chip model to mimic the innate cellular response to pulmonary infection of E. coli	Human alveolar epithelial cells	Green fluorescent protein (GFP) modified E. coli	[165]
	Ex vivo model	Ex vivo pig lung model was established to quantify P. aeruginosa growth, virulence and signaling in an environment that mimics infected cystic fibrosis lung	Porcine lung explants	P. aeruginosa	[239]
	Ex vivo model	Human ex vivo lung tissue culture model was established to characterize the initial phase of mycobacterial infections	Human lung tissues	Mycobacterial species (M. tuberculosis, M. avium, and M. abscessus)	[59]
	Ex vivo model	Precision cut lungs slices were used to model M. tuerculosis pathogenesis and bridge studies in vitro and in vivo	Precision cut lung slices from mice	M. tuerculosis strain H37Rv and M. bovis BCG	[238]
	Ex vivo model	Ex vivo viral infection of human lung tissues to study viral replication, tissue tropism and tissue activation	Human lung tissues	Influenza virus; adenovirus 7, and coronaviruses	[[258], [259], [260]]
Gut (Intestine)	3D organoid	Using 3D organoid and immunofluorescence techniques to visualize post-infection morphologic changes of small intestine	Crypt-derived mouse small intestinal cells	Salmonella	[137]
	organ-on-a-chip	Reconstituting human intestinal inflammation and injury on-chip	Human colorectal carcinoma-derived (Caco-2) intestinal epithelial cells co-cultured with human capillary endothelial cells or human lymphatic microvascular endothelial cells	Nonpathogenic green fluorescent protein-labeled E. coli (GFP-EC) and pathological enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)	[160]
	Ex vivo model	Ex vivo human intestinal model to study Entamoeba histolytica pathogenesis	Human colon explant	E. histolytica WT strain HM1:IMSS	[261]
	Ex vivo model	Ex vivo mice intestinal tract was used to study the adhesion, colonization and pathology of Blastocystis spp.	Mice intestinal tract	Blastocystis spp. ST7-H and ST7-b	[262]
Skin	Microfluidic Model	Examine the behavior of the bacteria/biofilm under antibiotic treatment	N/A	MRSP and S. epidermidis biofilms	[187,188]
	Ex vivo model	Ex vivo porcine skin explant model was used to establish mature bacterial biofilm and assess effects of antimicrobial agents on these biofilms	Porcine skin	P. aeruginosa wild type strain PAO1, P. aeruginosa mutant PAO-JP1, and S. aureus ATCC 35556	[253]
	Ex vivo model	3D skin explant model to study anaerobic bacterial infection	Ovine interdigital skin	D. nodosus	[244]
Brain	2D model	Using a 2D model to study the autophagy activities in host defenses when bacteria enters the BBB	Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (hBMECs)	Group B Streptococcus (GBS)	[202]
	3D Organoid	Employing forbraine organoids for modeling ZIKV exposure	Human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)	ZIKV	[147,148]
	Ex vivo model	Using organotypic brain slice culture to model viral encephalitis	Mice organotypic brain slice culture	Reovirus serotype 3 strain Abney (T3A)	[263]