Table 1.

Summary of the vaccine development tool bottlenecks. These bottlenecks identify generic rate-limiting stages in vaccine development that could be alleviated through further research spending, changes in policy of investment into infrastructure.

Stage in development	Short description	Type of bottleneck
Pre-clinical discovery	• Pathogen biology including - Human-host immunology - Pathogen Challenge model •Freedom to operate	•Research •Policy
Pre-clinical development	• Process development including, - Critical process parameters - Critical quality attributes - Adjuvants and formulation •Animal model choice • Scale-up and clinical manufacture - GMP bulk - GMP fill-finish	•Research •Research •Infrastructure
Clinical development	•GMO regulation •Trial sites and NRA approval •Regulatory and ethical approval	•Policy