Table 1.
Summarizing the evidence for the role of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (TEVs) in tumor-mediated immune suppression.
| Tumor Models | TEV Cargo | Target Cells | Biological Effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Functional Activation | ||||
| Breast cancer | PGE2 and TGF-β | MDSCs | Tumor growth promotion by inducing the release of IL-6, Cox2, and VEGF | [25] |
| Breast, colon cancer and lymphoma | Hsp72 | MDSCs | Immunosuppressive capacity promotion by activating STAT3 pathway | [26] |
| Gastric cancer | miR-107 | MDSCs | Cell expansion and activation by targeting DICER1 and PTEN | [28] |
| Glioma | miR-10a and miR-21 | MDSCs | Cell functions activation by targeting RAR-related orphan receptor alpha (RORA) and PTEN | [30] |
| Glioma | miR-29a and miR-92a | MDSCs | Increased proliferation and immunosoppressive function promotion | [31] |
| Ovarian cancer | TGF-β1 and IL-10 | Treg | Increased immunosuppressive capacity by expressing IL-10, TGF-β1, CTLA-4, granzyme B | [36] |
| Colorectal cancer | TGF-β1 | Treg | Up-regulation of Treg-related genes by activating SMAD pathway | [39] |
| Functional Inhibition | ||||
| Lung cancer | EGFR | DCs | Tolerogenic induction | [47] |
| Mesothelioma | NKG2D ligands and TGF-β | NK and CD8+ | Cell exhaustion through NKG2D activating receptors down-regulation | [48] |
| Pancreatic cancer | TGF-β, nectin-2 and PVR | NK | Cell functions impairment by down-regulating NKG2D, CD107a, TNF-α, and INF-γ expression | [52] |
| Oral cancer | NAP-1 | NK | Increased cell toxicity by activating the interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) pathway | [53] |
| Head and neck cancer, melanoma | FasL and MHC class I molecules | CD8+ | Cell expansion inhibition and cell death induction | [56] |
| Head and neck cancer | Galectin-1 | CD8+ | Cell dysfunction induction | [58] |
| Ovarian carcinoma | Arginase I | CD4+ and CD8+ | Cell proliferation inhibition | [59] |
| Gliobastoma | PD-L1 | CD4+ and CD8+ | Cell activation and proliferation inhibition | [63] |
| Breast cancer | PD-L1 | CD4+ and CD8+ | Cell activation inhibition | [64] |
| Functional Polarization | ||||
| Colorectal cancer | miR-145 | macrophages | Tumor growth promotion through M2-like macrophage polarization induction | [72] |
| Melanoma, skin, lung cancer | CSF-1, CCL2, FTH, FTL, TGFβ | macrophages | Tumor growth promotion through M2-like macrophage polarization induction | [74] |
| Colorectal cancer | lncRNA RPPH1 | macrophages | Tumor growth promotion through M2-like macrophage polarization induction | [77] |
| Glioblastoma | STAT3 pathway activator | monocytes | Tumor growth promotion through M2-like macrophage polarization induction | [69] |