Table 4.
Bone scaffold production method and main properties.
| Ref. | Biomaterial(s) | Production Method | Morphology | Porosity (%) | Density (g cm−3) | Elastic Modulus (MPa) | Compressive Strength (MPa) | In vitro Resorbability |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [115] | PEEK-BBC composite doped with VEGF | HA + β-TCP bioceramic powder derived from extracted teeth, then impregnation in organic foam to prepare PEEK/BBC composite (calcined). Finally, immersion in polypeptide hydrogel containing VEGF. |
Interconnected porous structure | 73.65 | - | - | - | - |
| [16] | PEEK-BBC composite | HA + β-TCP bioceramic powder derived from extracted teeth, then impregnation in organic foam to prepare PEEK/BBC composite (calcined at 1250 °C). | Interconnected porous structure | - | - | - | - | - |
| [116] | SLP CaSi | Direct ink writing | 3D porous structure | 58.3 ± 1.9 | - | ~55 (OSS) ~60 (TSS) |
25 (OSS) 25 (TSS) |
- |
| SLP CaSi–Mg6 | 53.1 ± 1.4 | - | ~135 (OSS) ~164 (TSS) |
81 (OSS) 103 (TSS) |
- | |||
| DLP CaSi | 59.2 ± 2.3 | - | ~45 (OSS) ~45 (TSS) |
18 (OSS) 18 (TSS) |
- | |||
| DLP CaSi–Mg6 | 53.5 ± 1.6 | - | ~90 (OSS) ~108 (TSS) |
~50 (OSS) ~63 (TSS) |
- | |||
| [117] | Multi-layered CaP/CaSi microspheres |
Co-concentric capillary system | Microspheres | - | - | - | - | - |
| [118] | (a) 50CS/PAA (b) 65CS/PAA (CS/PAA composites containing 50 and 65% (mass fraction) of CS) |
in situ melting polymerization | Granules | - | - | - | - | WEIGHT LOSS: first 4 weeks: rapid degradation rate. Then, 50CS/PAA weight loss slow and subsequently steady. 65CS/PAA weight loss continued to increase. Total weight loss (after 16 weeks in SBF) 41.5% for 50CS/PAA and 56.2% for 65CS/PAA composite. SEM analysis: after 16 weeks of soaking, smoother surfaces. |
| [119] | HA 60% + TCP 40% | Commercially available | Granules | - | - | - | - | - |
| [120] | HA/TCP * | Emulsion process | 3D porous structure | - | - | - | - | - |
| [17] | nHA/PLA | Porogen leaching technique (NaCl as porogen) | 3D porous structure | ~93 | - | - | - | WEIGHT LOSS: after 8 weeks in PBS: ~10% nHAP/PLA 50% PLGA |
| [122] | PLA/HA | 3D printing (mini-deposition system) | 3D porous structure | 60.0 ± 1.5 | - | - | - | - |
| β-TCP | Animal-derived | 3D porous structure | 60 ± 10 | - | - | - | - | |
| [123] | HA | Chemical synthesis | Powder | - | - | - | - | - |
| HaFS | HA + animal-derived FS | Mixture of HA powder and fibrin | - | - | - | - | - | |
| [124] | β-TCP-AE | Base-catalysed sol–gel technique | 3D porous structure | - | 0.15 ± 0.01 (no heat treatment), 0.52 ± 0.02 (1000 °C) | - | - | - |
| [121] | PLGA coated with Willemite (Zn2SiO4) | Electrospun PLGA nanofibers coated with willemite | Nanofibrous scaffold | - | - | - | - | - |
| [125] | Merwinite Ca3Mg(SiO4)2 | Sol-gel | Granules | - | - | - | - | - |
| HA | Commercially available | Powder | - | - | - | - | - |
* Calcium HA (65%) + TCP (35%); AE: mesoporous silica-based aerogel; β-TCP: β-tricalcium phosphate; BMSCs: bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells; CaP: calcium phosphate; CaSi: calcium silicate; CaSi–Mg6: dilute Mg-doped CaSi; CS/PAA: calcium sulfate/poly(amino acid); DLP: double-layer printing; FS: fibrin sealant; HA: hydroxyapatite; nHA: nano-HA; OSS = one-step sintering; PEEK-BBC: polyether ether ketone biphasic bioceramic composite (HA and β-TCP); PLA: polylactic acid; PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); SLP: single-layer printing; TSS = two-step sintering; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor.