Table 1.

Reported studies on the effects of selected xanthophylls and their anti-obesity effects.

s/n	Subject/Model	Effective Dose	Seaweed Specie	Observed Effect	References
1	Male Sprague Dawley Rat	0.083 and 0.167 mg/kg/bw FXN supplementation in HFD	not mentioned	Plasma and liver triglyceride concentrations were reduced and cholesterol-regulating enzymes such as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarylcoenzyme A reductase and acyl-coenzyme A were positively influenced.	[96]
2	Obese KK-Ay mice	0.2% FXN diet	Undaria pinnatifida	The increase in HDL and non-HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol levels; reduction in liver uptake of cholesterol were observed in KK-Ay mice.	[84]
3	KK-Ay mice and B6. V-Lepob/J (ob/ob) mice	0.1 or 0.2% FXN supplemented diet	Undaria pinnatifida	Suppressed body weight, visceral WAT mass, and lowered serum leptin levels.	[97]
4	Mice	150 mg/kg/day	Petalonia binghamiae	PBE (or FXN) exert improving effects on HFD-induced obesity by promoting β-oxidation and reducing lipogenesis.	[98]
5	C57BL/6J and KK-Ay mice	0.2% fucoxanthin FXN	Undaria pinnatifida	FXN regulated mRNA expression of inflammatory adipocytokines, and attenuated both body weight gain and WAT weight in diabetic/obese KK-Ay mice, but did not affect these parameters in lean C57BL/6J mice	[85]
6	Obese female volunteers with 100 kg average weight	2.4 mg/kg/day	Undaria pinnatifida	Increased energy expenditure in the body and resulted in significant weight loss after 16 weeks.	[45]
7	Female KK-Ay mice	2% seaweed lipids containing FXN 16–21 mg/g	Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame), Sargassum horneri (Akamoku), and Cystoseira hakodatensis (Uganomoku)	Significant decrease in liver lipid hydroperoxide levels and abdominal WAT weight.	[20]
8	C57BL/6N mice	0.05% and 0.2% FXN in diet, w/w	Undaria pinnatifida	FXN supplementation improves plasma and hepatic lipid metabolism and blood glucose concentration.	[44]
9	C57BL/6J mice	0.02% dose	Undaria pinnatifida	Ethanol extract on diet-induced-insulin resistance in C57BL/6J mice	[94]
10	C57BL/6J mice	0.05 or 0.2% FXN supplemented diet	Undaria pinnatifida	Regulated plasma and hepatic lipid metabolism; increased fecal lipid excretion. Fecal weight, liver, and triglycerides and cholesterol were not significantly different between 0.05 and 0.2% FX fed mice.	[62]
11	30 male 4-week-old C57BL/6 mice	Oral; 150 mg/kg/day for 70 days	Petalonia binghamiae	Extract (PBE) administration reduced body weight gain, adipose tissue weight, adipose cell size, serum triglyceride levels, and reduced lipid accumulation in the liver in HFD-induced obese mice.	[98]
12	3T3-L1 adipocyte	10 µM treatment	Petalonia binghamiae	FXN activated the AMPK signaling pathway; increased the phosphorylation of LKB1, AMPK, and ACC; and inhibited the expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1c in mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes.	[92,98]
13	Male Sprague-Dawley rats	0.2% FXN powder in feed	Undaria pinnatifida	The levels of hepatic lipids cholesterols and triglycerides were reduced significantly, with subsequent increases in the fecal excretions of lipids, cholesterol, and triglycerides in the FXN supplemented group.	[46]
14	Sprague-Dawley rats	5% seaweeds powder supplemented in HFD	Eucheuma cottonii; aulerpa lentillifera, and Sargassum polycystum	All seaweeds significantly reduced body weight gain and plasma lipid peroxidation in HCF diet rats. However, S. polycystum showed the best anti-obesity properties.	[49]
15	KK-Ay mice and B6. V-Lepob/J (ob/ob) mice	0.1 or 0.2% FXN supplemented diet	Undaria pinnatifida	Suppressed body weight, visceral WAT mass, and lowered serum leptin levels.	[97]
16	C57BL/6N mice	0.05 or 0.2% FXN supplemented diet	Undaria pinnatifida	Regulated plasma and hepatic lipid metabolism; increased fecal lipid excretion. Fecal weight, liver, and triglycerides and cholesterol were not significantly different between 0.05 and 0.2% FX fed mice.	[62]
17	Human	6, 12, and 18 mg/day of ASX	Haematococcus pluvialis	12 and 18 mg/day improved the serum lipid profile in humans (decrease in TG levels observed), 6 and 12 mg/day increased HDL-cholesterol; however, BMI values remained unchanged.	[99]
18	Male C57BL/6J mice	HF diet supplemented 0.003, 0.01 and 0.03% of ASTX (by weight)	Hematococcus pluvialis	0.03% ASX fed group showed significantly lowered triacylglycerol concentrations; increased the hepatic expression of endogenous antioxidant genes.	[100]
19	Male apoE knockout (apoE)−/− mic	0.03% ASX	Haematococcus pluvialis	ASX-rich H. pluvialis extract improves cholesterol and lipid metabolism as well as antioxidant defense mechanisms.	[101]
20	Male Swiss albino mice	6 mg/kg per day in olive oil for 60 days	Haematococcus pluvialis	ASX treatment reduced lipid accumulation and oxidative stress and adipose tissue weight. Also improved insulin sensitivity.	[102]
21	Human; overweight and obese young adults	5 mg and 20 mg soft ASX capsule	not mentioned	Improved lipid metabolism and prevented oxidative stress by stimulating the activity of the antioxidant defense system.	[103]
22	Male mus musculus albino mice	6 mg/kg per day in olive oil for 60 days	Haematococcus pluvialis	ASX improved antioxidant status, restricted weight gain, enhanced insulin sensitivity and restored liver lipid levels.	[104]