Table 1.
Number of urine samples positive for aflatoxin FM1 (AFM1), means, ranges, p-values for AFM1 urinary levels in consumers of each kind of food compared to non-consumers.
| Foods | Consumers | Non-Consumers | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | n (%) of Samples Positive | Mean (ng/mL) | Min–Max (ng/mL) | n | n (%) of Samples Positive | Mean (ng/mL) | Min–Max (ng/mL) | p-Value # | |
| Corn flour-based products | |||||||||
| Biscuits *** | 3 | 2 (66.7) | 0.014 | 0.013–0.014 | 115 | 85 (73.9) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Cakes *** | 1 | 0 (-) | - | - | 117 | 87 (74.4) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Corn cereals *** | 6 | 3 (50.0) | 0.022 | 0.006–0.047 | 112 | 82 (73.2) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.214 |
| Popcorn *** | 3 | 1 (33.3) | 0.01 | 0.01–0.01 | 115 | 86 (74.8) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Polenta (cooked or fried) *** | 9 | 7 (77.8) | 0.047 | 0.008–0.088 | 109 | 80 (73.4) | 0.034 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.387 |
| Other *** | 4 | 2 (50.0) | 0.025 | 0.007–0.043 | 114 | 85 (74.6) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Any corn flour-based products *** | 21 | 13 (61.9) | 0.026 | 0.006–0.088 | 97 | 74 (76.3) | 0.045 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.299 |
| Fresh milk | |||||||||
| Milk distributed by a coin machine *** (^) | 1 | 0 (-) | - | - | 117 | 87 (74.4) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Fresh milk from a supermarket ** (^^) | 24 | 19 (79.2) | 0.032 | 0.002–0.161 | 94 | 68 (72.3) | 0.045 | 0.004–0.399 | 0.528 |
| Fresh cheese ** | 65 | 53 (81.5) | 0.037 | 0.002–0.399 | 53 | 34 (64.2) | 0.050 | 0.003–0.180 | 0.606 |
| Aged cheese ** | 92 | 64 (69.6) | 0.048 | 0.002–0.399 | 26 | 23 (88.5) | 0.025 | 0.003–0.110 | 0.553 |
| Fish | |||||||||
| Fish * | 57 | 46 (80.7) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | 61 | 41 (67.2) | 0.0425 | 0.004–0.259 | 0.409 |
| Shellfish * | 26 | 20 (76.9) | 0.025 | 0.003–0.113 | 92 | 67 (72.8) | 0.0474 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.829 |
| Fresh fruit | |||||||||
| Bananas * | 59 | 45 (76.3) | 0.032 | 0.002–0.161 | 59 | 42 (71.2) | 0.053 | 0.003–0.399 | 0.585 |
| Pears * | 37 | 30 (81.1) | 0.039 | 0.004–0.161 | 81 | 57 (70.4) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.361 |
| Apples * | 84 | 62 (73.8) | 0.040 | 0.002–0.18 | 34 | 25 (73.5) | 0.048 | 0.003–0.399 | 0.619 |
| Kiwis * | 31 | 23 (74.2) | 0.023 | 0.003–0.157 | 87 | 64 (73.6) | 0.049 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.179 |
| Citrus fruits * | 82 | 59 (72.0) | 0.038 | 0.003–0.399 | 36 | 28 (77.8) | 0.052 | 0.002–0.259 | 0.096 |
| Other * | 24 | 18 (75.0) | 0.025 | 0.004–0.116 | 94 | 69 (73.4) | 0.047 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.352 |
| Meat | |||||||||
| Liver (pork/bovine) *** | 0 | - | - | - | 118 | 87 (73.7) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Beef * | 97 | 74 (76.3) | 0.044 | 0.003–0.399 | 21 | 13 (61.9) | 0.031 | 0.002–0.110 | 0.127 |
| Chicken * | 80 | 55 (68.8) | 0.047 | 0.003–0.399 | 38 | 32 (84.2) | 0.034 | 0.002–0.259 | 0.771 |
| Cereals or cereal-based products | |||||||||
| Bread ** | 105 | 75 (71.4) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 13 | 12 (92.3) | 0.032 | 0.003–0.157 | 0.504 |
| Pasta ** | 112 | 83 (74.1) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | 6 | 4 (66.7) | 0.051 | 0.005–0.157 | 0.643 |
| Grain soups ** | 14 | 10 (71.4) | 0.032 | 0.003–0.113 | 104 | 77 (74.0) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.671 |
| Muesli ** | 9 | 5 (55.6) | 0.009 | 0.007–0.016 | 109 | 82 (75.2) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.058 |
| Other cereals ** | 61 | 43 (70.5) | 0.034 | 0.003–0.161 | 57 | 44 (77.2) | 0.050 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.509 |
| Biscuits and rusks ** | 83 | 61 (73.5) | 0.046 | 0.002–0.399 | 35 | 26 (74.3) | 0.033 | 0.003–0.113 | 0.842 |
| Snack cakes ** | 50 | 41 (82.0) | 0.048 | 0.003–0.399 | 68 | 46 (67.6) | 0.038 | 0.002–0.259 | 0.103 |
| Cakes ** | 5 | 4 (80.0) | 0.019 | 0.006–0.047 | 113 | 83 (73.5) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.850 |
| Other cereals (pieces) ** | 17 | 14 (82.4) | 0.048 | 0.007–0.259 | 101 | 73 (72.3) | 0.041 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.339 |
| Rice-based or rice-flour based products | |||||||||
| Rice ** | 48 | 34 (70.8) | 0.041 | 0.004–0.259 | 70 | 53 (75.7) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.625 |
| Rice pasta ** | 0 | - | - | - | 118 | 87 (73.7) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Other ** | 0 | - | - | - | 118 | 87 (73.7) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Biscuits ** | 3 | 1 (33.3) | 0.015 | 0.015–0.015 | 115 | 86 (74.8) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Cakes ** | 7 | 2 (28.6) | 0.015 | 0.013–0.017 | 111 | 85 (76.6) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.027 |
| Puffed rice ** | 7 | 5 (71.4) | 0.041 | 0.005–0.116 | 111 | 82 (73.9) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.950 |
| Other ** | 2 | 2 (100.0) | 0.124 | 0.087–0.161 | 116 | 85 (73.3) | 0.040 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Spices | |||||||||
| Pepper *** | 25 | 18 (72.0) | 0.043 | 0.003–0.259 | 93 | 69 (74.2) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.325 |
| Ginger *** | 3 | 2 (66.7) | 0.048 | 0.007–0.088 | 115 | 85 (73.9) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Nutmeg *** | 1 | 1 (100.0) | 0.008 | 0.008–0.008 | 117 | 45 (38.5) | 0.036 | 0.002–0.259 | - |
| Chili pepper *** | 46 | 31 (67.4) | 0.040 | 0.003–0.259 | 72 | 56 (77.8) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.172 |
| Other *** | 4 | 4 (100.0) | 0.083 | 0.004–0.259 | 114 | 83 (72.8) | 0.040 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Nuts | |||||||||
| Peanuts *** | 21 | 17 (81.0) | 0.036 | 0.003–0.116 | 97 | 70 (72.2) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.420 |
| Pistachios *** | 8 | 5 (62.5) | 0.034 | 0.006–0.116 | 110 | 82 (74.5) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.585 |
| Nuts *** | 15 | 12 (80.0) | 0.0358 | 0.003–0.113 | 103 | 75 (72.8) | 0.0433 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.654 |
| Almonds *** | 11 | 8 (72.7) | 0.029 | 0.004–0.096 | 107 | 79 (73.8) | 0.044 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.463 |
| Other *** | 6 | 4 (66.7) | 0.029 | 0.006–0.096 | 112 | 83 (74.1) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | 0.422 |
| Dried fruit | |||||||||
| Dried figs *** | 0 | - | - | - | 118 | 87 (73.7) | 0.042 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Dried prunes *** | 3 | 2 (66.7) | 0.012 | 0.009–0.014 | 115 | 85 (73.9) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Dried apricots *** | 1 | 1 (100.0) | 0.007 | 0.007–0.007 | 117 | 86 (73.5) | 0.0427 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Dates *** | 3 | 1 (33.3) | 0.008 | 0.008–0.008 | 115 | 86 (74.8) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
| Other *** | 2 | 1 (50.0) | 0.007 | 0.007–0.007 | 116 | 86 (74.1) | 0.043 | 0.002–0.399 | - |
*** potential food source of aflatoxin; ** unlikely food source of aflatoxin; * foods not at risk for aflatoxin exposure based on the last ten years of reports from the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) and the specific emergency measures for aflatoxins as reported by the qualitative analysis of the AF contamination alert reposting system and amendments (European Union Regulation 884/2014a (EU/884/2014)). # Wilcoxon test; ^ Fresh milk produced by a single farm; ^^ Milk produced by several farms.