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General scheme of immunosensor based on electroactive label conjugates: (A) in sandwich format; (B) in direct signal format; (C) chemical structures of different electroactive labels widely used for antibody bioconjugation: (a) ferrocenecarboxylic acid, (b) anthraquion-one 2-carboxylic acid, (c) thionine, (d) tris(2,2′-bipyridine-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid)cobalt(III), (e) tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II) with N-succinimidyl ester group, (f) iron heme group in horseradish peroxidase.
