Table 6. Multilevel logistic regression analysis of individual-, relationship-, community- and societal-level factors associated with IPV.
| Group | Variable | Class | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV |
| AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | ||||
| Level-I variables | Current age | 15–19 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
| 20–24 | 2.07 (1.37, 3.13) | 2.02 (1.34, 3.06) | 2.02 (1.35, 3.07)** | |||
| 25–29 | 2.08 (1.39, 3.14) | 2.05 (1.36, 3.08) | 2.05 (1.37, 3.09)** | |||
| 30–34 | 2.52 (1.66, 3.84) | 2.45 (1.61, 3.73) | 2.46 (1.62, 3.73)*** | |||
| 35–39 | 3.14 (2.05, 4.82) | 3.04 (2.00, 4.68) | 3.05 (2.00, 4.68)*** | |||
| 40–44 | 2.54 (1.59, 4.03) | 2.43 (1.53, 3.86) | 2.42 (1.52, 3.85)*** | |||
| 45–49 | 3.41 (2.09, 5.56) | 3.32 (2.03, 5.41) | 3.31 (2.03, 5.40)*** | |||
| Age at first cohabitation | <18 years | 1.29 (1.08, 1.52) | 1.28 (1.07, 1.53) | 1.28 (1.08, 1.52)* | ||
| ≥18 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Educational status | No education | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Primary | 0.69 (0.42, 1.14) | 0.66 (0.40, 1.08) | 0.66 (0.40, 1.10) | |||
| Secondary+ | 0.43 (0.17, 1.11) | 0.42 (0.16, 1.06) | 0.42 (0.17, 1.08) | |||
| Witness inter-parental violence | No | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 3.37 (2.83, 4.01) | 3.34 (2.81, 4.00) | 3.33 (2.80, 3.96)*** | |||
| Substance abuse | No | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1.20 (0.98, 1.46) | 1.21 (0.99, 1.48) | 1.21 (1.00, 1.48) | |||
| Wife beating attitude | No | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1.21 (1.01, 1.44) | 1.16 (0.96, 1.40) | 1.15 (0.96, 1.39) | |||
| Partner's educational status | No education | |||||
| Primary | 1.62 (0.96, 2.74) | 1.58 (0.93, 2.66) | 1.56 (0.92, 2.63) | |||
| Secondary+ | 1.58 (0.64, 3.92) | 1.50 (0.61, 3.71) | 1.50 (0.60, 3.70) | |||
| Partner drinks alcohol | No | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 3.03 (2.46, 3.74) | 3.00 (2.43, 3.69) | 3.00 (2.42, 3.67)*** | |||
| Wealth index | Poorest | 1.05 (0.80, 1.38) | 1.08 (0.82, 1.43) | 1.08 (0.82, 1.43) | ||
| Poorer | 0.83 (0.63, 1.09) | 0.84 (0.64, 1.11) | 0.84 (0.64, 1.11) | |||
| Middle | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Richer | 0.80 (0.59, 1.07) | 0.80 (0.60, 1.08) | 0.81 (0.60, 1.09) | |||
| Richest | 0.72 (0.55, 1.03) | 0.76 (0.48, 1.06) | 0.74 (0.46, 1.05) | |||
| Decision-making autonomy | No | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 0.77 (0.64, 0.91) | 0.81 (0.67, 0.97) | 0.81 (0.68, 0.97)* | |||
| Educational difference | Women higher | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Same | 0.44 (0.25, 0.77) | 0.45 (0.26, 0.78) | 0.45 (0.26, 0.79)* | |||
| Husband higher | 0.30 (0.11, 0.86) | 0.31 (0.11, 0.88) | 0.31 (0.11, 0.89)* | |||
| Group | Variable | Class | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV |
| AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | ||||
| Level-II variables | Place of residence | Urban | 1 | − | ||
| Rural | 0.80 (0.54, 1.19) | − | ||||
| Early marriage | Low | 1 | − | |||
| High | 1.00 (0.79, 1.26) | − | ||||
| Female literacy | Low | 0.74 (0.57, 0.96) | 0.74 (0.57, 0.96)* | |||
| High | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Women’s decision-making autonomy | Low | 1 | 1 | |||
| High | 0.79 (0.63, 0.99) | 0.80 (0.64, 1.01) | ||||
| IPV acceptability | Low | 1 | 1 | |||
| High | 1.22 (0.97, 1.54) | 1.31 (1.06, 1.62)* | ||||
| Level-III variables | MPI | Below national average | 1 | |||
| Above national average | 0.58 (0.33, 1.01) | |||||
| GEI | Below average | 1 | ||||
| Above average | 0.85 (0.50, 1.44) | |||||
| Random effects | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV | ||
| Community variance (SE) | 0.79 (0.11)* | 0.59 (0.10)* | 0.29 (0.26)* | 0.28 (0.26)* | ||
| Region variance (SE) | 0.20 (0.13)* | 0.19 (0.09)* | 0.17 (0.09)* | 0.12 (0.07)* | ||
| ICC in community (%) | 23.1 | 19.2 | 12.3 | 10.9 | ||
| ICC in region (%) | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 3.4 | ||
| PCV_community (%) | Reference | 25.3 | 63.3 | 64.6 | ||
| PCV_region (%) | Reference | 5 | 15 | 40 | ||
| Test of Model fitness | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV | ||
| Likelihood ratio | -2336.84 | -2199.03 | -2191.73 | -2190.10 | ||
| AIC | 4679.68 | 4448.06 | 4447.16 | 4398.29 | ||
AOR = Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI = Confidence Interval; MPI = Multi-dimensional Poverty Index; GEI = Gender Empowerment Index; SE = Standard Error; ICC = Intra-class Correlation Coefficient; PCV = Proportional Change in Variance; AIC = Akaike Information Criterion
*P-value ≤0.05
**P-value ≤0.01
***P-value ≤0.001
Model 1 is the empty model or a baseline model without any determinant variables; Model 2 is adjusted for individual- and relationship-level factors; Model 3 is adjusted for individual-, relationship-, and community-level factors; Model 4 is the final model adjusted for individual-, relationship-, community-, and societal-level factors