Table 1.
Gender differences among internalizing problems, early predictors and adolescent outcomes
| Measures | Boys | Girls | F-test | Cohen’s d | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean(SD) | 95% CI | Mean(SD) | 95% CI | |||
| Internalizing problems | ||||||
| Probability at age 3 | 0.09(0.28) | (0.08–0.10) | 0.09(0.28) | (0.08–0.09) | F(1, 389) = 0.12 | |
| Probability at age 5 | 0.05(0.23) | (0.05–0.06) | 0.06(0.23) | (0.05–0.06) | F(1, 389) = 0.05 | |
| Probability at age 7 | 0.08(0.28) | (0.08–0.09) | 0.08(0.27) | (0.07–0.08) | F(1, 389) = 1.55 | |
| Probability at age 11 | 0.12(0.32) | (0.11–0.13) | 0.12(0.33) | (0.11–0.13) | F(1, 389) = 1.44 | |
| Probability at age 14 | 0.12(0.33) | (0.11–0.13) | 0.18(0.38) | (0.16–0.19) | F(1, 389) = 67.85*** | −0.15 |
| Early predictors | ||||||
| BME background | 0.11(0.31) | (0.09–0.13) | 0.12(0.32) | (0.09–0.14) | F(1, 389) = 1.06 | |
| Teenage mother | 0.03(0.17) | (0.02–0.03) | 0.03(0.17) | (0.02–0.03) | F(1, 389) = 0.17 | |
| Low birth weight | 0.06(0.24) | (0.06–0.07) | 0.07(0.26) | (0.07–0.08) | F(1, 389) = 11.05*** | −0.05 |
| Single parent | 0.15(0.35) | (0.13–0.16) | 0.14(0.35) | (0.13–0.15) | F(1, 389) = 0.85 | |
| Parent low qualifications | 0.19(0.39) | (0.18–0.20) | 0.18(0.38) | (0.17–0.19) | F(1, 389) = 0.35 | |
| Income quintile | 3.00(1.41) | (2.92–3.08) | 3.00(1.42) | (2.92–3.07) | F(1, 389) = 0.13 | |
| Social housing | 0.23(0.42) | (0.21–0.25) | 0.24(0.43) | (0.22–0.26) | F(1, 389) = 0.17 | |
| Maternal smoking in pregnancy | 0.22(0.42) | (0.21–0.24) | 0.21(0.41) | (0.19–0.22) | F(1, 389) = 3.69 | |
| Maternal depressive symptoms | 0.08(0.27) | (0.07–0.08) | 0.07(0.26) | (0.07–0.08) | F(1, 389) = 3.31 | |
| Paternal depressive symptoms | 0.05(0.21) | (0.04–0.05) | 0.05(0.22) | (0.04–0.06) | F(1, 389) =1.41 | |
| Self-reported adolescent outcomes | ||||||
| Early menarche | n/a | n/a | 0.24(0.43) | (0.22–0.25) | n/a | |
| How many times had an alcoholic drink | 0.90(1.31) | (0.85–0.96) | 0.85(1.24) | (0.80–0.90) | F(1, 389) = 4.98 | |
| How often do you smoke | 0.30(0.87) | (0.27–0.33) | 0.39(1.01) | (0.35–0.42) | F(1, 389) = 16.92*** | −0.08 |
| How often smoke cannabis | 0.12(0.57) | (0.10–0.14) | 0.10(0.50) | (0.09–0.12) | F(1, 389) = 2.79 | |
| Ever self-harmed | 0.09(0.29) | (0.08–0.10) | 0.22(0.41) | (0.21–0.24) | F(1, 389) = 356.80*** | −0.35 |
| High BMI | 0.16(0.37) | (0.15–0.17) | 0.16(0.36) | (0.14–0.17) | F(1, 389) = 0.00 | |
| Hours spent on social networks | 3.01(2.15) | (2.92–3.11) | 4.05(2.07) | (3.97–4.13) | F(1, 389) = 752.28*** | −0.51 |
| Engaged in sexual activity | 0.03(0.18) | (0.03–0.04) | 0.03(0.17) | (0.03–0.04) | F(1, 389) = 0.36 | |
| Mental wellbeing | 5.62(1.04) | (5.58–5.65) | 5.26(1.16) | (5.21–5.30) | F(1, 389) = 280.09*** | 0.31 |
| Depressive symptoms | 1.34(0.38) | (1.32–1.35) | 1.55(0.51) | (1.53–1.57) | F(1, 389) = 657.26*** | −0.48 |
| Low educational motivation | 2.90(0.48) | (2.89–2.92) | 2.86(0.53) | (2.83–2.88) | F(1, 389) = 20.77*** | 0.08 |
| How often argue with mother | 2.75(1.04) | (2.71–2.78) | 2.91(1.06) | (2.87–2.94) | F(1, 389) = 86.35*** | −0.17 |
| How often argue with father | 2.44(1.04) | (2.39–2.48) | 2.45(1.03) | (2.41–2.49) | F(1, 389) = 4.36 | |
| Parent-reported adolescent outcomes | ||||||
| Conduct problems | 0.15(0.36) | (0.14–0.17) | 0.11 (0.32) | (0.10–0.12) | F(1, 389) = 29.80*** | 0.08 |
| Peer problems | 0.20(0.40) | (0.19–0.22) | 0.16 (0.37) | (0.15–0.18) | F(1, 389) = 18.86*** | 0.07 |
| Hyperactivity | 0.15(0.36) | (0.14–0.17) | 0.08 (0.27) | (0.07–0.09) | F(1, 389) = 93.68*** | 0.22 |
F-tests were conducted using svy in STATA, which reports design degrees of freedom for a complex clustered and stratified survey design. **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001