Table 4.

Cross-reference of cancer treatment candidate plant species collected from the study areas with the published literature.

Botanical name (family)	Biological activity/chemical constituents	Illnesses/symptoms claimed to be treated traditionally
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anderson (Acanthaceae)	Saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids and flavonoids [32] In vitro cytotoxicity [33]; in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [34]; in vivo suppression of parasitaemia on Plasmodium berghei-infected mice in the 4-day suppressive test [32]; and in vivo hepatoprotective activity in mice intoxicated with CCL4 [35]	Wound [15, 21]; rabies [15, 18–20, 36–39]; jaundice [15, 16, 21, 23, 38, 40]; gonorrhea [17, 36, 39]; liver cirrhosis [18, 26]; seizure [19, 41]; stomach ache [15, 25, 38]; helminths [15, 42, 43]; skin burn/lesion [23, 44]; arthritis [21, 23]; hepatitis [45, 46]; evil eye [15, 46]; dysentery [15, 21]; malaria [36, 39]; common cold, asthma, and headache [36, 39, 47]; otitis [48]; toothache [49]; and rheumatism [50]
Aloe sp. (Aloaceae)	Anthrones and chromones [51], pyrones, coumarins, alkaloids, glycoproteins, naphthalenes, and flavonoids [52] 7‐O‐methylaloeresin showed in vitro antioxidant activity in DPPH assay [51], and methanol and ethanol extract showed in vivo parasitaemia suppression on Plasmodium berghei-infected mice in the 4-day suppressive test [53, 54]	Wound [21, 55]; eye disease [21, 46, 48, 56]; snake bite [21, 48, 56]; malaria [20, 21, 44, 48, 54]; easing labour [44]; tropical ulcer, colon cleaner, and gallstone [48]; amoeba, abdominal pain, impotence, and urine retention [21]; dandruff [46, 56], hemorrhoids and hepatitis B [46]; ascariasis [21]; diabetes [54]; asthma [55]; foot strain [57, 58]; wart and anthrax [20]; external injury [59]; and liver swelling, splenomegaly, and skin inflammation [56]
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae)	Phytosteroids, polyphenols, and saponins [60] Methanol extracts have showed in vivo wound healing activity [61]	Bleeding [21, 24, 26, 62–64]; retained placenta [21, 62]; stomach ache and external swelling [17]; rhesus factor incompatibility in pregnancy [40, 55]; epistaxis [19]; hepatitis and evil eye [24]; tonsillitis [21, 57]; snake bite and paralysis [21]; dysentery [59]; herpes zoster [26]; anthrax [21, 49]; nasal infection and ophthalmic infection [64]; excessive menstruation and tape worm infection [15]; and gonorrhea [65]
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Apiaceae)	Terpenoids (triterpenes, asiaticoside, centelloside, madecassoside, brahmoside, brahminoside (saponin glycosides), asiaticentoic acid, centellic acid, centoic acid, madecassic acid, terminolic acid, betulic acid, β-caryophyllene, trans-β-farnesene and germacrene D (sesquiterpenes), α-pinene, and β-pinene [66, 67] Methanol extract inhibited the proliferation of human gastric adenocarcinoma (MK-1), human uterine carcinoma (HeLa), and murine melanoma (B16F10) cells in vitro [68]; aqueous extracts induced apoptosis in colonic crypts and exerted chemopreventive effect on colon tumorigenesis in male F344 rats [69]	Genital infection and lymphadenitis [63]; topical swelling [26, 70]; gastritis, headache, and evil eye [70]; bleeding [40]; wound [24]; abdominal ache [71]; meningitis [72]; and tinea corporis [47]
Hydrocotyle mannii Hook.f (Apiaceae)	No previous reports	Eye infection [63] and cataract [72]
Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Schweinf. (Apocynaceae)	In vitro cytotoxicity [73]; in vitro antiviral activity against coxsackie B3, influenza A, and herpes simplex type1 virus [74]; in vitro antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Trichophyton mentagrophytes [75]; and in vivo parasitaemia suppression in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice [76]	Wound [16, 44, 77, 78]; hepatitis [15, 16, 22, 44]; gonorrhea [19, 25]; evil eye [62]; bone fracture [24]; hemorrhoids [44]; scabies [21]; malaria and tonsillitis [48, 56]; psychiatric disease [55]; and skin diseases [65]
Carissa spinarum L. (Apocynaceae)	In vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay and in antiproliferative activity [79]	Throat cancer [23, 80]; evil eye [16, 21, 24, 49, 62, 70, 72, 81]; snake bite [23, 80]; gonorrhea [20, 65]; stomach ache [20, 70]; impotence and headache [20]; tonsillitis [17, 56, 70]; wound and febrile illness [16]; bleeding after delivery [44]; muscle cramps [49]; toothache [47]; and premature ejaculation [56]
Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. (Asclepiadaceae)	Latex contains phytochemicals such as alkaloids, sterols, fatty acids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums, and enzymatic proteins such as proteases, chitenases, lipases, peptidases, esterase, peroxidases, papain, hevein, and lectins [82] In vivo hepatoprotective [83]; hypoglycemic effect [84]; strong anti-implantation (antifertility) [85]; crude latex showed antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities against the toxicity of 4-nonylphenol [86]	Wound [16, 21, 81]; hemorrhoids [16, 19, 44]; wart [16, 57]; snake bite [23, 87]; kidney stone, tuberculosis, and scabies [16]; swelling [58]; skin rash [21, 49]; tinea capitis [21]
Pentarrhinum insipidum E. Mey. (Asclepiadaceae)	No previous reports
Echidnopsis dammanniana Sprenger (Asclepiadaceae)	No previous reports	Snake bite [56]
Kniphofia foliosa Hochst. (Asphodelaceae)	2-Acetyl-1-hydroxy-8-methoxy-3-methylnaphthalene, 10-(chrysophanol-7′-yl)-10-(ξ)-hydroxychrysophanol-9-anthrone, chryslandicin, knipholone, and chrysophanol [88] 10-(Chrysophanol-7′-yl)-10-(ξ)- hydroxychrysophanol-9-anthrone showed in vitro antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 strain of Plasmodium falciparum and knipholone selectively inhibited leukotriene metabolism in in vitro a human blood assay [88]; knipholone anthrone showed in vitro cytotoxicity [89] and antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [90]	No previous reports
Acmella caulirhiza Delile (Asteraceae)	Unsaturated alkylamides like spilanthol and N-isobutylnona-2E,4E-dien-8ynamide [91] In vitro antiplasmodial activity [92]	Swelling [15]; tonsillitis [20, 63]; and toothache [40, 87]
Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae)	Camphor, davanone, ethyl (E)-cinnamate, (E)-nerolidol, and chamazulene [93] Essential oils showed in vitro antiparasitic effects against promastigote and axenic amastigote forms of Leishmania donovani and Leishmania aethiopica and in vitro cytotoxicity on THP-1 (human leukaemia) cell lines [93]; and in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cell lines [94]	Hypertension, stomach ache, severe abdominal cramp [18] and sour throat [40]
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. (Asteraceae)	Epoxylinalol and dihydrocostunolide [94]; camphor, davanone, bornyl acetate, 4-terpineol, and chamazulene [95] In vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cell lines [73]; and in vitro antioxidant effect on DPPH assay [95]	Stomach ache [18, 42]; evil eye [16, 17, 62]; headache [42, 77]; eye disease, tinea capitis infection, hematuria, and stabbing pain [77]; antifertility agent [33]; malaria [42, 62]; ascariasis [18]; epilepsy and febrile illness [46, 65]
Artemisia annua L. (Asteraceae)	In vitro inhibition of immune mediators of angiogenesis [96]; the sesquiterpene (Z)-7-acetoxy-methyl-11-methyl-3-methylene-dodeca-1,6,10-triene showed moderate cytotoxic activities against the human tumor cell lines of HO8910 (ovary), 95-D (lung), QGY (liver), and HeLa (cervix) by MTT assay and induced apoptosis on 95-D tumor cells [97]; artemisinin and quercetagetin 6,7,3′,4′-tetramethyl ether showed significant cytotoxicity against P-388, A-549, HT-29, MCF-7, and KB tumor cells [98]	No previous reports
Cineraria abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich. (Asteraceae)	In vitro radical scavenging activity on DPPH assay [99]; flavonoidal glycoside (rutin) showed in vitro antibacterial activity [100]	No previous reports
Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Asteraceae)	In vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cell lines [73], and in vitro antiviral activity [101]	Wound [20]; epilepsy [40]; and ectoparasite infestation [47]
Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey (Asteraceae)	In vitro antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 cytotoxicity on human T-lymphocytic MT-4 cell lines [102]	Skin diseases [62]; retained placenta [40]; hepatitis [64]; evil eye [15]
Vernonia auriculifera Hiern (Asteraceae)	Tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, and saponins [103]	Toothache [72]; snake bite [42]; skin cut [47]
Cleome brachycarpa (Forssk.) Vahl ex DC. (Capparidaceae)	No previous reports
Commelina benghalensis L. (Commelinaceae)	Phlobatannins, carbohydrates, tannins, glycosides, volatile oils, resins, balsams, flavonoids, and saponins [104] Ethanol extract showed in vivo sedative and anxiolytic activity [105]	Helminths [65]; skin infection [72]
Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich. (Crassulaceae)	Polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and steroids [106] In vitro antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus [75]; and in vivo wound healing activity [106]	Breast and skin cancer [107]; swelling [40, 77]; tapeworm infection, trachoma, and syphilis [77]; lymphadenopathy and evil eye [22]; sore muscles [108]; itching skin [63]; and bone fracture [23]
Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile (Euphorbiaceae)	Ethanol extract showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [79]	Tumor, rabies, and wart [24]; skin cancer and wound [17]; gonorrhea [20, 23, 62]; headache [18, 109]; snake bite [18, 72]; malaria [16, 18–20, 110]; helminths [18, 111]; tinea nigra [40]; ringworm [17, 62]; tinea versicolor [16, 25]; heart failure [62]; bleeding [18, 24]; hepatitis [16, 18, 24]; stomach ache [16, 18, 23]; diarrhea [16, 18]; lymph adenitis and rheumatism [18]; bloat, scabies, and urine retention [16]; retained placenta and leprosy [19]
Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele (Euphorbiaceae)	In vitro cytotoxic effect against breast cancer (MCF7), hepatocellular carcinoma (HEPG2), and cervix cancer (HELA) cells [112]	Syphilis [108]
Albizia schimperiana Oliv. (Fabaceae)	In vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]	Evil eye [20]; kidney infection and liver cirrhosis [18]
Calpurnia aurea (Aiton) Benth. (Fabaceae)	3β,4α,13α-Trihydroxylupanine, calpaurine, lupinine, and epilupinine calpurmenine and calpurmenine pyrrolecarboxylic acid ester, 13-hydroxylupanine, its tiglate and pyrrolecarboxylic acid esters (calpumine), virgiline and virgiline pyrrolecarboxylic acid ester [113]; 4β-hydroxy-13α-O-(2′-pyrrolylcarbonyl)-lupanine (digittine) and 4β,13α-dihydroxylupanine [114]; alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, and saponins [35] Methanol extract showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [75] and type 1 and type 2 human immunodeficiency virus and showed cytotoxicity on human T-lymphocytic MT-4 cell lines [102]; methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]; and ethanol extracts showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [79]	Tumor [22, 26, 80]; stomach ache [21, 62, 70, 81]; wound and skin infection [62]; Gonorrhoea and syphilis [16], amoebiasis [16, 80]; ascariasis and gastric ulcer [23]; diarrhea [21, 38, 70]; scabies and pubic hair louse [40]; diabetes mellitus and hypertension [19]; herpes zoster, hemorrhoids and tinea capitis [21]; and swelling and tuberculosis [58]
Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. (Fabaceae)	Methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]	No previous reports
Crotalaria incana L. (Fabaceae)	Dihydrosenecionine isomer, nemorensine isomer, integerrimine and anacrotine [115] Methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cell lines [73]
Senna singueana (Delile) Lock (Fabaceae)	Methanol extracts showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [116]	Stomach ache [58, 62, 70]; wound and swellings [62]; teeth infection and sprain [58]
Ajuga leucantha Lukhoba (Lamiaceae)	No previous reports	Diarrhea [70]
Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson (Lamiaceae)	Methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]	Ascariasis [62], febrile illness [16, 62]; eye disease [16]; headache and neck ulcer [55]; and snake bite [15]
Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiaceae)	Essential oil contains constitutes γ-terpinene, β-phellandrene, limonene, and thymol and showed in vivo antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium berghei infection [117]	Allergy reaction [18, 20]; rheumatism, headache and eye disease [18]; febrile illness and general malaise [40]; sun stroke [24]; malaria [44]
Pycnostachys abyssinica Fresen. (Lamiaceae)	No previous reports	Eye disease [18, 47]; ascariasis and wound [18]; diarrhea, stomach ache, amoebiasis, stomach bloating, and food poisoning [70]; headache [63]
Salvia nilotica Juss. ex Jacq. (Lamiaceae)	Essential oil contains germacrene D, guaiol, and trans-caryophyllene as major constituents and showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria; the oil also showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [118]	Tonsillitis and constipation [62]; herpes simplex [18, 38]; wound [40]; lymphadenitis [63]; and hemorrhoids and diarrhea [65]
Thymus schimperi Ronniger (Lamiaceae)	Phenol and flavonoid compounds, and aqueous methanol extract showed in vitro radical scavenging ability, iron reducing power, and total antioxidant capacity [119]	Diabetes [62]; hypertension [18, 40]; tonsillitis [18]; toothache [18, 21]; abdominal pain [21]; and cough [38, 55]
Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Malvaceae)	No previous reports	“Shotelaye” (hydrops fetalis) [21, 22]; cough and fever [62]; diarrhea [18]; wound [25, 62]; bleeding and evil eye [24]; glandular disease and rabies [40]; amoebic dysentery, and liver disease [65]; paralysis [21]; epilepsy [43]
Bersama abyssinica Fresen. (Melianthaceae)	Flavonol glycosides isoquercetrin, hyperoside, quercetin-3-O-arabinopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-arabinopyranoside, xanthone glycoside, mangiferin [115] Ethanol water extracts showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay and antiproliferative activity on human liver carcinoma cell line and normal human fetal lung cells [79]; methanol extract showed in vitro antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [115], and antiviral activity against type 1 human immunodeficiency virus [102]	Tumor, dysentery and roundworms [107, 109]; ascariasis [15, 38, 81, 109]; wound [20]; stomach ache [17]; snake bite and liver diseases [70]; tonsillitis [72]; bronchitis and febrile illness [42, 43]
Dorstenia barnimiana Schweinf. (Moraceae)	Phytochemical screening showed the presence of coumarins [34]	Cancer [26]; hepatitis, syphilis and rabies [25, 26]; skin cancer, dysentery, wart and fever [25]; pulmonary tuberculosis, leprosy, and stomach illness [22]
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. (Myrtaceae)	Methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73] and antimicrobial activity [120]	Stomach ache [17–19, 23]; diarrhea [15, 18, 19, 24], kidney infection, liver cirrhosis, and tonsillitis [18]; syphilis [23, 80]; malaria, hemorrhoid, internal worms, snake bite, and gonorrhea [65]
Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae)	In vivo antitumor activity against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma on mice [121]	Wound [17]; arthritis [63]; tape worm infection [21]
Rumex nervosus Vahl (Polygonaceae)	Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, glycosides, and volatile oils [122]	Breast cancer, gastritis, and snake bite [16]; wart [15, 22]; hepatitis [49, 55]; skin rash [16, 21]; bleeding [15, 40, 81, 109]; wound [40, 49, 55, 62, 109, 110]; scabies and acne vulgaris [62]; ascariasis and herpes simplex [21]; stomach ache and dysentery [22]; diarrhea [49]; eye problems and round worm [55]
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. (Polygonaceae)	Anthraquinones, naphthalenes, tannins, stilbenoids [123] Ethanol water extracts showed in vitro antiproliferative activity on human liver carcinoma cell line and on normal human fetal lung cells and antioxidant activity on DPPH assay [79], and methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]	Wound, ascariasis, abdominal bleeding, gastric ulcer, and hemorrhage [23, 80]; gastritis [18]; stomach problems [108]; leishmaniasis [25]; abdominal cramp and ear infection [63]; tonsillitis [18, 25]
Clematis simensis Fresen. (Ranunculaceae)	Triterpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, polyphenols, and unsaturated sterols [120] In vivo anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities [124]	Cancer and hemorrhoid [15]; wart and evil eye [24, 40]; wound [15, 24, 40, 63, 81]; tonsillitis [62]; eye infection [63]; leg swelling, malaria, and mental illness [49]; stomach ache [47]
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae)	No previous reports	Benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate gland hypertrophy [20]; cancer, respiratory disorders, bad breathe, diarrhea, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, and ear problems [22]; swelling [40]; wounds [19, 22]; tonsillitis [23, 80]
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. (Rutaceae)	Carbazole alkaloids, peptide derivatives, sitosterol, and stigmasterol [125] Methanol and dichloromethane crude extracts showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cells [73]	Skin irritation [20]; toothache [40]; ascariasis [19]; evil eye [24, 25, 63]
Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. (Santalaceae)	Alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, and flavonoids [126] Methanol extracts showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes [11]; in vitro inhibition of NO production and cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and NCI-H460 cell lines [127]	Cancer [62]; anaphylactic shock, evil eye, and epilepsy [18]; eczema [40]; toothache [46]
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia (L.f.) J.G.West (Sapindaceae)	Alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, sugars, phenolics, and flavonoids [128] Methanol extracts showed in vivo nonsensitizer effect in mice using the mouse ear swelling test method [129], in vitro antiviral effect against type 1 human immunodeficiency virus [102], and in vitro free radical scavenging activity on DPPH assay [128]	Malaria [57]
Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. (Simaroubaceae)	Flavonoids, amino acids, and vitamin C [130] In vitro antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium berghei infection [131]	Cancer/tumor [107]; wart [24]; rabies [18, 62]; leprosy [62]
Discopodium penninervium Hochst. (Solanaceae)	5α,17β-Dihydroxy-6α,7α-epoxy-1-oxowitha-2,24-dienolide, withanone, and withanolide A [132], 5,6-epoxy-16-oxygenated withanolides, jaborosalactone-L, and 17-epiacnistin-A [133, 134]; 6α,7α-epoxy-1-oxo-5α,12α,17α-trihydroxywitha-2,24-dienolide and a coloratane sesquiterpene, 7α,11α-dihydroxy-4(13),8-coloratadien-12,11-olide, withanone, 5α,17β-dihydroxy-6α,7α-epoxy-1-oxowitha-2,24-dienolide, 7α,11α-dihydroxy-8-drimen-12,11-olide, withasomnine, and (E,Z)-9-hydroxyoctadeca-10,12-dienoic acid [135] Jaborosalactone-L showed cytotoxicity only to the murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, but the 16α-oxygenated withanolides exhibited cytotoxicity to both human (COR-L23 and ECV 304) and murine (L929 and RAW 264.7) carcinoma cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 1.2 to 150 μM [136]. 6α,7α-Epoxy-1-oxo-5α,12α,17α-trihydroxy-witha-2,24-dienolide inhibited COX-2 and LTB4 formation; 7α,11α-dihydroxy-4(13),8-coloratadien-12,11-olide and withasomnine inhibited LTB4 biosynthesis but showed minor inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 [135]	Skin detoxification [62]; and liver disease [70]
Gnidia involucrata Steud. ex A.Rich. (Thymelaeaceae)	Flavonoids and glycosides [137]	Ascariasis, evil eye, anthrax, intestinal helminths, and gland swelling [18]
Lantana trifolia L. (Verbenaceae)	Flavone glycosides (scutellarein-7-O-β-D-apiofuranoside and apigenin-7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1⟶2)-β-D-apiofuranoside) and the flavone celtidifoline (5,6,40,50-tetrahydroxy-7,30-dimethoxyflavone) [138, 139]	Headache [70]; malaria [71]
Lippia adoensis Hochst. (Verbenaceae)	Limonene, perillaldehyde, piperitenone, and 2-methyl-6-methylene-2,7-octadien-4-one [140], sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (germacrene D) [141] Methanol extract showed in vitro cytotoxicity on human leukaemia cell lines [73], and antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [75]; water extracts showed in vivo protection/relieve against acetic acid induced writhing in mice model [142]	Eczema, fungal infections, common cold, and cough [62]; intestine swelling [18]; gastrointestinal disorder [40]; abdominal irritation and acute stomach illness [46]
Cyphostemma serpens (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Desc. (Vitaceae)	No previous reports