Table 5. Anthropometric and biochemical parameters according to the frequency of breakfast intake in people consuming FF ≥ 1 time/week (n = 474).
| Parameters | Breakfast everyday: 5–6 times/week (n = 180) | Breakfast on few days: 3–4 times/week (n = 79) | Little or no breakfast: ≤ 2 times/week (n = 215) | p value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P0 | P1 | P2 | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.9 ± 0.27 | 22.8 ± 0.38 | 23.6 ± 0.30 | 0.134 | 0.271 | 0.358 |
| Waist (cm) | 77.3 ± 0.79 | 77.9 ± 1.05 | 79.5 ± 0.79 | 0.118 | 0.261 | 0.428 |
| Systolic BP (mmHg) | 108.3 ± 1.01 | 111.3 ± 1.30 | 111.3 ± 0.85 | 0.045 | 0.095 | 0.281 |
| Diastolic BP (mmHg) | 72.3 ± 0.80 | 73.5 ± 1.21 | 73.9 ± 0.70 | 0.304 | 0.390 | 0.592 |
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL)* | 90.4 ± 0.94 | 94.3 ± 3.53 | 92.7 ± 1.39 | 0.322 | 0.254 | 0.182 |
| Hemoglobin A1c (%) | 5.49 ± 0.03 | 5.58 ± 0.10 | 5.51 ± 0.04 | 0.534 | 0.125 | 0.071 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 176.4 ± 2.39b | 173.7 ± 3.10b | 192.2 ± 3.15a | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| Triglyceride (mg/dL)* | 111.4 ± 7.35b | 110.9 ± 8.56b | 146.6 ± 11.2a | 0.013 | 0.003 | 0.008 |
| LDL-cholesterol (mg/dL)* | 100.6 ± 2.03b | 100.3 ± 2.75b | 111.8 ± 2.26a | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | 56.6 ± 0.97 | 53.6 ± 1.37 | 55.6 ± 0.89 | 0.225 | 0.331 | 0.246 |
| AST (IU/L) | 18.8 ± 0.55 | 19.0 ± 0.70 | 19.7 ± 0.64 | 0.523 | 0.749 | 0.738 |
| ALT (IU/L) | 17.5 ± 0.93 | 20.0 ± 1.91 | 21.8 ± 1.35 | 0.042 | 0.052 | 0.221 |
| Creatinine (mg/dL) | 0.83 ± 0.01 | 0.83 ± 0.02 | 0.83 ± 0.01 | 0.997 | 0.806 | 0.914 |
Values are presented as mean ± standard error.
FF, fast-food; BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BP, blood pressure; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein.
*Tested after log-transformation. Statistical significances were determined by one-way analysis of variance (unadjusted: P0) or by general linear model followed with Bonferroni multiple correction after adjustment for age, sex, total calorie intake, drinking, smoking, household income, education levels, and physical activity (P1), with further adjustment for the food groups which were significantly different among the fast-food intake frequency status (grains; meat, fish, and eggs; vegetables; soft-drinks) (P2). Sharing the same alphabet indicates no statistical significant differences in the same raw.