Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for the cellular mechanism of neurotoxicity of local anesthetics. The intrinsic caspase pathway, PI3K pathway, and MAPK pathway are reliable signaling pathways in the neurotoxicity of local anesthetics. Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD); death-inducing signaling complex (DISC); phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K); mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK).