Table 3. Crude and adjusted analyses of the association between the dietary contribution of ultra-processed food and indicators of obesity among the UK population aged 19 years or over (NDNS, 2008─16).
| Consumption of ultra-processed foods (% of total energy) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex-specific quartile a | p for trend α | Continuous (10% increase in the consumption) | ||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||
| Mean (SE) | 26.9 (0.2) | 27.1 (0.2) | 27.2 (0.3) | 28.0 (0.3) | ||
| Crude, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 0.27 (-0.33; 0.87) | 0.33 (-0.38; 1.04) | 1.15 (0.37; 1.94) | 0.006 | 0.29 (0.10; 0.48) |
| Model 1b, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 0.25 (-0.33; 0.83) | 0.33 (-0.33; 0.99) | 1.47 (0.73; 2.21) | <0.001 | 0.35 (0.16; 0.53) |
| Model 2c, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 0.39 (-0.15; 0.94) | 0.35 (-0.27; 0.97) | 1.66 (0.96; 2.36) | <0.001 | 0.38 (0.20; 0.55) |
| Waist circumference (cm) | ||||||
| Mean (SE) | 91.6 (0.6) | 92.6 (0.6) | 92.5 (0.8) | 94.0 (0.9) | ||
| Crude, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 1.01 (-0.68; 2.70) | 0.89 (-0.99; 2.77) | 2.43 (0.33; 4.53) | 0.034 | 0.79 (0.26; 1.31) |
| Model 1b, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 0.26 (-1.22; 1.74) | 0.72 (-0.93; 2.37) | 3.52 (1.66; 5.39) | 0.001 | 0.80 (0.31; 1.28) |
| Model 2c, coef (95% CI) | 0 | 0.55 (-0.87; 1.98) | 0.42 (-1.16; 2.01) | 3.56 (1.79; 5.33) | <0.001 | 0.87 (0.40; 1.33) |
| Obesityd | ||||||
| Prevalence (SE) | 22.8 (1.8) | 24.7 (1.9) | 27.3 (2.1) | 31.6 (2.4) | ||
| Crude, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 1.11 (0.83; 1.48) | 1.27 (0.95; 1.70) | 1.56 (1.16; 2.11) | 0.002 | 1.13 (1.05; 1.21) |
| Model 1b, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 1.11 (0.83; 1.50) | 1.26 (0.94; 1.71) | 1.71 (1.25; 2.33) | 0.001 | 1.15 (1.06; 1.25) |
| Model 2c, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 1.19 (0.88; 1.61) | 1.31 (0.97; 1.78) | 1.90 (1.39; 2.61) | <0.001 | 1.18 (1.08; 1.28) |
| Abdominal obesitye | ||||||
| Prevalence (SE) | 41.2 (2.2) | 40.1 (2.1) | 40.0 (2.3) | 41.7 (2.4) | ||
| Crude, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.96 (0.75; 1.23) | 0.95 (0.74; 1.23) | 1.02 (0.79; 1.33) | 0.903 | 1.01 (0.94; 1.07) |
| Model 1b, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.96 (0.74; 1.24) | 0.96 (0.75; 1.27) | 1.27 (0.96; 1.69) | 0.132 | 1.05 (0.98; 1.13) |
| Model 2c, OR (95% CI) | 1 | 1.00 (0.77; 1.30) | 0.99 (0.76; 1.29) | 1.34 (1.00; 1.79) | 0.076 | 1.06 (0.99; 1.14) |
a Quarters of proportion of ultra-processed foods in total energy intake. Sex specific cut-offs for quarters of ultra-processed food consumption were 36.3%, 51.0%, 61.1% and 76.2% in men and 35.2%, 50.4%, 60.1% and 73.1% in women.
b Adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, region, survey year, and social class occupation.
c Adjusted for Model 1 + physical activity (time spent at moderate or vigorous physical activity) + smoking + sleep duration + following a special diet.
d Defined as Body Mass Index ≥30 kg/m2 (World Health Organization, 2003).
e Defined as waist circumference ≥102/88 cm for men and women, respectively (World Health Organization, 2008).
α p value for linear trend across quartile of dietary contribution of ultra-processed foods.