Table 2.

Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) from terrestrial and aquatic environment and their impacts on human health [on direct exposure, as pathogens, as vector, as toxins (chemic release/biological toxins), through contamination of edible foodstuffs, through their morphological/vegetation attributes, allergens and indirect implications].

Serial No.	Invasive alien plant species (IAPS)	Role/mode of disease spread	Health Impacts	Source
1.	Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth)	Both as vector and direct exposure	Management through physical removal of this top aquatic IAPS, lead to abundance of anopheline and culicine mosquito larvae favourably inhabited by this macrophyte, which may lead to malaria out-break. Also, act ashost vector of snails carrying Schistosoma mansoni, causing parasites resulting in disease schistosomiasis. Further, deterioration of water quality may also have adverse health implications	Plummer, 2005, Mazza et al., 2014, Gezie et al., 2018, Stone et al., 2018
2.	Lantana camara (Lantana/railway creeper)	As vector	Proved to be worst IAPS which provide favourable habitat for Glossina spp. (tse-tse fly), causing sleeping sleekness	Leak, 1999, Mack et al., 2000, Mazza et al., 2014
3.	Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium/Congress grass)	Direct exposure	IAPS of severe threat to global landscapes, which affect human health through allergic responses e.g. eczematous dermatitis and asthma; Acts as malarial vector, especially in South Africa	Reaser et al., 2007, Mazza et al., 2014, Nyasembe et al., 2015, Stone et al., 2018
4.	Senecio inaequidens	Direct exposure	A neophyte in South Africa imposing serious human health risk due to toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids group containing (mainly retrorsine)	Eller and Chizzola (2016)
5.	Ailanthus altissima	Direct exposure	Persistent long term exposure to sap can cause myocarditis; Causes allergic response in the form of dermatitis	Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010
6.	Pistia Stratiotes, Hydrocotyle Ranunculoides, Myriophyllum Aquaticum, Egeria densa	As vector	Malaria outbreak through hosting Mansonia spp. And Malarial mosquitoes	Alarcón-Elbal, 2013, Stone et al., 2018
7.	Aquatic plants trade carrying Biomphalaria glabrata, B. straminea and B. tenagophila and Anophlese sp.	As vector	Can transmit parasites to humans; Resulting in schistosomiasis spread through water hyacinth; Can result in Malarial outbreak	Mack et al., 2000, Plummer, 2005, Mazza et al., 2014, Stone et al., 2018
8.	Ambrosia artemisiifolia	Direct exposure	Causes allergic response in the form of dermatitis; exacerbating human health implications (especially in Europe) through allergic responses, under climate change scenario, revealed by pollen/greenhouse emission models; caused asthma as epidemic in several European Countries and China leading to huge economic burden in its treatment; Among 11 allergens, IgE reactivity, Amb a 1 and Amb a 11 seem to be are recognised as major allergens; Allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) may be the best health treatment option	Xu et al., 2006, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010, Daisie, 2009, Schindler et al., 2015, Lake et al., 2017, Müller-Schärer, et al., 2018, Chen et al., 2018
9.	Acacia, Acer, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Helianthus, Platanus and Xanthium	Direct exposure	Pollen invaders (studied in Spain) spread In atmospheric environment impose threats to human health in form of rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma; Concomitantly, pollen allergens can exacerbate old respiratory problems and skin allergies	Belmonte and Vilà, 2004, Mazza et al., 2014
10.	Echium plantagineum	IPS toxins transferred to food	Pyrrolizidine from this plant make honey Toxic for human health	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
11.	Algal blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa , Anabena sp. etc.	IPS toxins transferred to water/food	Toxins like Microcystin, hepatotoxins, anatoxins and possible tumour promoters from algal blooms contaminate the water and food chain (through biomagnification) components like edible plants/fish, which on intake, adversely affecting human health e.g. teratogenic effects	Streftaris and Zenetos, 2006, Funari and Testai, 2008, Wu et al., 2012, Mazza et al., 2014, Lee et al., 2017
12.	Robinia pseudoacacia	Direct exposure	Continuous exposure can lead to gastroenteritis due to toxins lying flowers and seed	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
13.	Prosopis juliflora, Senna didymobotrya and Tecoma stans	Vector	Assist in outbreak of malaria by attracting the malarial parasites, as host; Prosopis juliflora demonstrated to accelerate the transmission potential of Anophlese	Muller et al., 2017, Stone et al., 2018, Shiferaw et al., 2019
14.	Datura spp., Thuja orientalis, Cestrum parqui, Lupinus polyphyllus, Nicotiana tabacum, Cannabis indica	Direct exposure	Ornamental / commercial plants toxic to health	Celesti-Grapow et al., 2010, Mazza et al., 2014
15.	Cortaderia selloana	Direct exposure	Injuries and wounds	Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010
16.	Cortaderia selloana (Pampas grass)	Direct exposure	Sharp leaves with thorns or silicate crystals can result in skin cut, injuries/ wounds	GISD, 2013, Mazza et al., 2014
17.	Spartina anglica	Direct exposure	External skin injuries and wounds due to cut from sharp edged leaves	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
18.	Opuntia stricta	Direct exposure	Health implications in form of eye and skin irritations, possibly due to glochids on the fruit	Shackleton et al. (2017)
19.	Caesalpinia decapetala	Direct exposure	Injuries and wounds	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
20.	Rosa rugosa	Direct exposure	Injuries/ wounds due to sharp and thick thorny edges	Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010, Mazza et al., 2014
21.	Nicotiana glauca (South American mustard tree)	Direct exposure	Poisonous in nature	Daisie (2009); ; Mazza et al. (2014)
22.	Cortaderia selloana		Allergy resulting from pollen	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
23.	Acacia dealbata	Direct exposure	Causes allergies/allergic responses	Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010
24.	Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed)	Direct exposure	Phototoxic plant of USA, Australia and Europe cause allergic response through in the Plant sap in form of Dermatitis/phytophotodermatitis, When, human skin is exposed to UV rays; Unfortunately, if sap is entered to eyes, it Can lead to temporary/permanent Blindness; In Germany, this IAPS affected Human health at wide scale (about 16,000 victims in 2003)	Pyšek et al., 2007, Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010
25.	Schinus terebinthifolius	Direct exposure	Allergic response resulting in (flu-like symptoms)	Pysˇek and Richardson (2010)
26.	Robinia pseudoacacia (Locust tree)	Direct exposure	Presence of a phytotoxin i.e. robin inner bark, young leaves and seeds which may contaminate the edible fried preparation of its flowers (in Italy) and may impose health implications on intake	Daisie, 2009, Mazza et al., 2014
27.	Lannea acida, Barleria lupulina	Vector	Result in Malarial outbreak due to Spread of female An. Coluzzii, a malarial parasite, having affinity for nectars of these IAPS	Stone et al. (2018)
28.	Rhododendron ponticum	Direct exposure	Cardiac problem due to contaminated honey with toxins (grayanotoxins) produced and transferred from this IAPS	Koca and Koca, 2007, Daisie, 2009, Pysˇek and Richardson, 2010
29.	Phragmites australis and Typha spp.	Habitat/reservoir of vector-borne pathogens	Assist in spread of West Nile virus Hazardous to human health	MacKay et al. (2016)
30.	Ixodes scapularis	Vector	Causes Lyme disease as a vector of Borrelia burgdorferi	Clow et al. (2017)