Table 1.

Typical antiviral mechanisms for nanoparticles.

Nanomaterial	Virus	Mechanism	Reference
Graphene oxide	Respiratory syncytial virus	Directly inactivate virus and inhibit attachment	[86]
Nanogel	PRRSV	Shield attachment and penetration	[64]
Silver nanoparticle	Herpesvirus	Affect viral attachment	[63]
Graphene oxide	Herpesvirus	Attachment inhibition	[87]
gold nanoparticles	Herpesvirus	Prevent viral attachment and penetration	[71]
Nano‑carbon	Herpesvirus	Inhibit virus entry at the early stage	[123]
Silicon nanoparticles	Influenza A	Reduce the amount of progeny virus	[124]
Ag2S nanoclusters	Coronavirus	Block viral RNA synthesis and budding	[44]
Gd2O3:Tb3+/Er3+ nanoparticles	Zika virus	As antigen microcarriers for Zk2 peptide of ZIKV	[112]
Copper oxide nanoparticles	Herpes simplex virus type 1	Oxidation of viral proteins and degradation of viral genome	[114]
NiO nanostructures	Cucumber mosaic virus	Increase the expression of pod, pr1 and pal1 genes	[116]
Zirconia nanoparticles	H5N1 influenza virus	Promote the expression of cytokines	[117]
Zinc oxide nanoparticles	H1N1 influenza virus	Inhibit virus only after viral entry into host cells	[118]