Table 2.
Functional Neuroimaging
| Study | Neuro-biological measure | R/S measurement | Religion type | Activity studied | Principal findings with R/S participants/tasks |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Azari et al. (2001)29 | PET | Self-identification, member of Christian community, history | Christian | Religious recitation | Activation of dorsolateral prefrontal, dorsomedial frontal, and medial parietal cortex |
| Beauregard & Paquette (2006)30 | fMRI | None (all nuns) | Catholic | Mystical experience | Activation in right medial orbitofrontal cortex, right middle temporal cortex, right inferior and superior parietal lobules, right caudate, left medial prefrontal cortex, left anterior cingulate cortex, left inferior parietal lobule, left insula, left caudate, left brain stem, and extra-striate visual cortex |
| Han et al. (2008)31 | fMRI | Self-identification, attached to Christian community, MMPI questions on religion (including importance of prayer and Bible) | Christian | Trait judgment | Increased activity in dorsal medial prefrontal cortex |
| Schjoedt et al. (2008)32 | fMRI | None (all are part of orthodox Lutheran community) | Christian | Prayer | Greater activation of right caudate nucleus in both high- and low-structured prayers |
| Wiech et al. (2008)33 | fMRI | Membership, attendance, prayer, devotional actions | Catholic | Pain perception | Greater activation in right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex with religious images |
| Ge et al. (2009)34 | fMRI | Self-identification, attached to Christian community | Christian | Trait judgment | Functional connectivity between medial prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex/precuneus differentiated between trait judgments of the government leader and the self, but not between trait judgments of Jesus and the self |
| Harris et al. (2009)35 | fMRI | Dedicated Christians (beliefs, convictions) | Christian | Statement judgment | Increased activation in posterior cingulate, precuneus, anterior cingulate, frontal pole, anterior insula, middle frontal gyrus, lateral occipital gyrus, intraparietal gyrus, ventral striatum, inferior frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum for religious statements |
| Schjoedt et al. (2009)36 | fMRI | None (all are part of orthodox Lutheran community) | Christian | Prayer | Increased activation in temporopolar region, medial prefrontal cortex, temporoparietal junction, and precuneus |
| Han et al. (2010)37 | fMRI | Self-identification, attached to faith community, R/S importance | Buddhist | Trait judgment | Increased activations in dorsal medial prefrontal cortex/rostral anterior cingulate cortex, midcingulate and the left frontal/insular cortex during self-judgment Decreased functional connectivity between dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex during self-judgment |
| Wu et al. (2010)38 | fMRI | None (Tibetans assumed to be Buddhist) | Buddhist | Trait judgment | Stronger activation in middle temporal gyrus in self-processing |
| Schjoedt et al. (2011)39 | fMRI | Prayer, belief in healing, persons with healing powers | Charismatic Christians | Listening to intercessory prayer | Deactivation of medial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex bilaterally |
| Christensen et al. (2014)40 | fMRI | R/S beliefs (strong view, importance, external entity) using Royal Free Interview for Spiritual and Religious Beliefs | Catholic | Moral judgment | Enhanced activity was in precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex, middle temporal pole, and medial superior frontal gyri |
| Johnson et al. (2014)41 | fMRI | R/S orientation and belief using Quest scale | Various | Viewing religious/nonreligious negative and positive symbols | Deactivation in medial occipital, inferior parietal, temporal, and anterior cingulate cortex while viewing religious negative symbols |
| Svob et al. (2016)15 | fMRI | R/S importance | Various (mostly Catholic) | None | Lower default mode network connectivity in left lateral parietal lobe in high-risk individuals |
fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging; MMPI, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; PET, positron emission tomography; R/S, religion and spirituality.