Table 3.
Selected studies that electrically stimulate cranial nerves to modulate cognition and behavior. Outcome column lists if results are positive (+), negative, (−), or inconclusive (+/−) relative to intended rationale. Target nerve and rationale as stated in the original publication.
| CN | Citation | Device/Electrode model | Method | Duration | Dose | Rationale | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| II | Sabel et al. (2011) | Noninvasive stimulation device (EBS Technologies, Kleinmachnow, Germany | rTACS (non-invasive) |
(10) sessions 40 min/session |
Varied burst pattern, <1000 μA; 4 sintered Ag/AgCl ring electrodes placed “near the eyeball” return: right wrist | Determine transorbital stimulation effect on perception and cortical function | (+) |
| II | Gall et al. (2011) | Noninvasive stimulation device (EBS Technologies, Kleinmachnow, Germany Electrode: Not Specified |
rTACS (non-invasive) |
(10) sessions 20-40 min/session | 5 - 30 Hz varied burst pattern., <500 μA; 4 periorbital gold electrodes, bilaterally superior and inferior to the eye, return: occipital pole | Improvement of visual functioning and mood in visual impaired | (+) |
| V | Basso et al. (2016) | Device/Electrode: TEN device (Thync, Inc., Los Gatos, CA) | TNS (non-invasive) | 1 week 20 min/day |
biphasic pulse-modulated High: 3-11 kHz, 5-7 mA Low: 0.5-0.75 kHz, <5 mA; Active: right temple (10/10 site F8) Return: base of the neck |
Suppressing psychophysiological and biochemical stress responses in humans | (+) |
| V | Piquet et al. (2011) | Device/Electrode: Cefaly (STX-Med., Herstal, Belgium) | TNS (non-invasive) |
(1) session 20 min |
120 Hz pulsed, 250 μs pulse width, < 14 mA; 30 mm x 94 mm bipolar electrode, placed bilaterally over the ophthalmic branch | Modulate vigilance1 | (+/−) |
| V/VII/IX | Wildenberg et al. (2011) | Device/Electrode: Tongue Display Unit Kaczmarek (2011) |
CN-NINM (non-invasive) |
(9) sessions 20 min/session |
200 Hz pulsed, 50 μs pulse width, 50 Hz burst, 3 pulses per burst, < 17 V; 12 × 12 electrode array placed on the super anterior tongue, Gold plated, 1.55 mm diameter. | Map cortical networks engaged during CN-NINM modulation of optic flow balance disorder patients | (+) |
| VIII | Wilkinson et al. (2008) | National Instruments LabVIEW 6.0 and a dual output Microstar D/A board. Electrode: ComfortEase, Empi Inc. |
GVS (non-invasive) | (1) session | 1000 Hz Gaussian noise, σ=0.25, μ = 0.8mA; Bipolar electrode placed bilaterally over mastoids, electrode 3 cm2 carbon-rubber | Improve visual memory with low levels of GVS | (+) |
| VIII | Dilda et al. (2012) | Self-designed optically isolated constant current generator Electrode: 7180, 3 M Health Care, St. Paul, MN |
GVS (non-invasive) | (1) session 641 s [CI 9.3] |
0.16-0.61 Hz noisy, ≤5mA; bilaterally over mastoids, cut electrosurgical split grounding plate electrodes coated in EMG electrode gel | Modulate cognitive function2 | (+/−) |
| X | Jacobs et al. (2015) | TENSTem dental (Schwa-medico BV, Woudenberg, The Netherlands) Electrode: Not Specified |
taVNS (non-invasive) | (1) session 17 min |
8 Hz pulsed, 200 μs pulse width, 5.0 mA; Active: left external acoustic meatus inner side of the tragus, circular clip, 10 mm diameter. Return: right arm, rectangular solid gel, 35 x 22 mm | Enhance associative memory in older individuals | (+) |
| X | Clark et al. (1999) | Device/Electrode: Implantable neurocybernetic prosthesis (Cyberonics, Inc.) | VNS (invasive) | (4) sessions 1.5 min/session |
30 Hz biphasic pulsed, 500 μs pulse width, 30s on, 0.50-1.50 mA; Wrapped around cervical branch of vagus nerve, bipolar platinum helical coil, 2-3 mm diameter. | Enhance verbal word recognition | (+) |
rTACS: repetitive transorbital alternating current stimulation; TNS: trigeminal nerve stimulation; CN-NINM: cranial nerve noninvasive neuromodulation; GVS: galvanic vestibular stimulation; tVNS: rTACS: repetitive transorbital alternating current stimulation; TNS: trigeminal nerve stimulation; CN-NINM: cranial nerve noninvasive neuromodulation; GVS: galvanic vestibular stimulation; taVNS: transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation; VNS: vagus nerve stimulation.
Psychomotor vigilance task. Critical flicker fusion frequency, D2 test
Perspective taking tasks were impaired (perspective taking, match to sample), object-based transformations were not impaired (Stroop, mental rotation, reaction time, dual tasking)