Figure 2.

Ectopic lipid accumulation and fatty acid-induced renal toxicity. FA is stored in the global triglyceride pool or oxidized in mitochondria to produce ATP. FA, on the one hand, increases the expression of SREBP and, on the other hand decreases the activity of PPAR-α, both increasing the renal triglyceride level and proinflammatory cytokines. Accumulated FFAs are trapped in the mitochondrial matrix, resulting in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and dysfunction. ATP depletion contributes to apoptosis, resulting in fibrosis. Blue arrows indicate what is being downregulated (down arrows) or upregulated (up arrows). Abbreviations: FA: fatty acid; SREBP: sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c; PPAR-α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha; FAO: fatty acid oxidation; ROS: reactive oxygen species; ATP: adenosine triphosphate.