FIGURE 2.

Employing OVs as adjuvants to synergize with multiple cancer immunotherapies. The ability of tumor cell selectivity and induction of systematic immune responses allow OVs as immune adjuvants to enhance the treatment effects of cancer immunotherapies like cancer vaccines, CAR-T therapy and immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). The lysis of tumor cells mediated by OVs could increase the release of tumor antigens, PAMPs, DAMPs, and some immune-stimulatory cytokines, which subsequently turn the “cold” tumor into “hot” tumor for immunotherapy approaches. TAAs, tumor-associated antigens; DAMPs, damage associated molecular patterns; HMGB1, high mobility group box 1; HSP, heat shock protein; PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns; dsDNA, double-stranded DNA; ssRNA, single-stranded RNA; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TLR, Toll-like receptor.