Table 4.
Univariable and multivariable analyses of associations with any noma cases (stage 0 to 5), 0–5 years
| Study population | Univariable analysis | Multivariable analysis | ||||||
| Proportion of all respondents; n=4239; %(n/N*) | Proportion respondents with any noma stage; n=63; % (n/N*) |
OR | CI | P value | aOR | CI | P value | |
| Child demographics | ||||||||
| Child age (years) | ||||||||
| 0–2 | 46.2% (1957/4239) | 17.5% (11/63) | Ref | <0.001 | Ref | <0.001 | ||
| 3–5 | 53.8% (2282/4239) | 82.5% (52/63) | 4.1 | 2.20 to 7.62 | 3.9 | 2.04 to 7.47 | ||
| Birth order | ||||||||
| 1–2 | 39.9% (1691/4239) | 30.2% (19/63) | Ref | 0.174 | Ref | 0.398 | ||
| 3 or more | 60.1% (2548/4239) | 69.8% (44/63) | 1.5 | 0.83 to 2.88 | 1.36 | 0.67 to 2.79 | ||
| Feeding practices | ||||||||
| Duration of breastfeeding | ||||||||
| 12+ months | 84.4% (3565/4226) | 95.2% (60/63) | Ref | 0.02 | ||||
| 0–12 months | 15.6% (661/4226) | 4.8% (3/63) | 0.3 | 0.09 to 0.81 | ||||
| Colostrum given to baby | ||||||||
| No | 11.9% (502/4221) | 11.1% (7/63) | Ref | 0.899 | ||||
| Yes | 88.1% (3719/4221) | 88.9% (56/63) | 1.1 | 0.37 to 3.09 | ||||
| Frequency of the child eating pap per week | ||||||||
| <1 or never | 31.6% (1340/4239) | 34.9% (22/63) | Ref | 0.597 | ||||
| 1 or more | 68.4% (2899/4239) | 65.1% (41/63) | 0.9 | 0.47 to 1.54 | ||||
| Frequency of the caretaker preparing pap per week | ||||||||
| <1 or never | 30.8% (1307/4239) | 34.9% (22/63) | Ref | 0.505 | ||||
| 1 or more | 69.2% (2932/4239) | 65.1% (41/63) | 0.8 | 0.46 to 1.46 | ||||
| Animal products eaten in the 24 hours before interview | ||||||||
| No | 91.5% (3879/4239) | 95.2% (60/63) | Ref | 0.274 | ||||
| Yes | 8.5% (360/4239) | 4.8% (3/63) | 0.5 | 0.16 to 1.67 | ||||
| Grains eaten in the 24 hours before interview | ||||||||
| No | 19.3% (819/4239) | 22.2% (14/63) | Ref | 0.607 | ||||
| Yes | 80.7% (3420/4239) | 77.8% (49/63) | 0.8 | 0.45 to 1.59 | ||||
| Vegetables eaten in the 24 hours before interview | ||||||||
| No | 69.6% (2952/4239) | 69.8% (44/63) | Ref | 0.963 | ||||
| Yes | 30.4% (1287/4239) | 30.2% (19/63) | 1 | 0.56 to 1.73 | ||||
| Health | ||||||||
| Are the teeth ever cleaned (self-reported) | ||||||||
| No | 13.8% (508/3679) | 9.7% (6/62) | Ref | 0.3 | ||||
| Yes | 86.2% (3171/3679) | 90.3% (56/62) | 1.5 | 0.69 to 3.39 | ||||
| Teeth cleaning frequency per day (self-reported) | ||||||||
| Once or twice | 85.1% (3132/3679) | 88.7% (55/62) | Ref | 0.37 | ||||
| Less than once | 14.9% (547/3679) | 11.3% (7/62) | 0.7 | 0.34 to 1.50 | ||||
| SAM, MAM | ||||||||
| Normal | 88.5% (3535/3993) | 91.1% (51/56) | Ref | 0.199 | ||||
| SAM | 3.7% (149/3993) | 7.1% (4/56) | 1 | 0.55 to 6.85 | ||||
| MAM | 7.7% (309/3993) | 1.8% (1/56) | 0.2 | 0.03 to 1.71 | ||||
| GAM | ||||||||
| Normal | 88.5% (3535/3993) | 91.1% (51/56) | Ref | 0.666 | ||||
| GAM | 11.5% (458/3993) | 8.9% (5/56) | 0.8 | 0.26 to 2.36 | ||||
| Was the child vaccinated (self-report) | ||||||||
| No | 27.5% (1165/4239) | 23.8% (15/63) | Ref | 0.516 | ||||
| Yes | 72.5% (3074/4239) | 76.2% (48/63) | 1.2 | 0.67 to 2.20 | ||||
| Vaccinations listed on vaccination card | ||||||||
| Diphtheria | ||||||||
| No | 71.1% (635/893) | 75.0% (12/16) | Ref | 0.688 | ||||
| Yes | 28.9% (258/893) | 25.0% (4/16) | 0.8 | 0.21 to 2.81 | ||||
| Pertussis | ||||||||
| No | 73.7% (658/893) | 75.0% (12/16) | Ref | 0.84 | ||||
| Yes | 26.3% (235/893) | 25.0% (4/16) | 0.9 | 0.24 to 3.21 | ||||
| Tetanus | ||||||||
| No | 82.1% (733/893) | 75.0% (12/16) | Ref | 0.584 | ||||
| Yes | 17.9% (160/893) | 25.0% (4/16) | 1.4 | 0.40 to 5.11 | ||||
| Hepatitis A | ||||||||
| No | 93.4% (834/893) | 93.8% (15/16) | Ref | 0.9 | ||||
| Yes | 6.6% (59/893) | 6.3% (1/16) | 0.9 | 0.11 to 6.86 | ||||
| Hepatitis B | ||||||||
| No | 77.4% (691/893) | 68.8% (11/16) | Ref | 0.415 | ||||
| Yes | 22.6% (202/893) | 31.3% (5/16) | 1.6 | 0.52 to 4.84 | ||||
| Measles | ||||||||
| No | 38.0% (339/893) | 31.3% (5/16) | Ref | 0.628 | ||||
| Yes | 62.0% (554/893) | 68.8% (11/16) | 1.3 | 0.43 to 4.11 | ||||
| Pneumococcal disease | ||||||||
| No | 69.4% (620/893) | 75.0% (12/16) | Ref | 0.686 | ||||
| Yes | 30.6% (273/893) | 25.0% (4/16) | 0.8 | 0.19 to 2.96 | ||||
| Yellow fever | ||||||||
| No | 64.7% (578/893) | 68.8% (11/16) | Ref | 0.745 | ||||
| Yes | 35.3% (315/893) | 31.3% (5/16) | 0.8 | 0.24 to 2.75 | ||||
| Meningitis | ||||||||
| No | 87.6% (782/893) | 75.0% (12/16) | Ref | 0.15 | ||||
| Yes | 12.4% (111/893) | 25.0% (4/16) | 2.3 | 0.74 to 7.26 | ||||
| Polio | ||||||||
| No | 21.8% (195/893) | 12.5% (2/16) | Ref | 0.351 | ||||
| Yes | 78.2% (698/893) | 87.5% (14/16) | 2 | 0.48 to 8.12 | ||||
| Any vaccination listed on vaccination card | ||||||||
| No | 79.2% (3356/4239) | 74.6% (47/63) | Ref | 0.415 | ||||
| Yes | 20.8% (883/4239) | 25.4% (16/63) | 1.3 | 0.70 to 2.40 | ||||
| Child sick during last 12 months | ||||||||
| No | 29.7% (1260/4239) | 23.8% (15/63) | Ref | 0.235 | ||||
| Yes | 70.3% (2979/4239) | 76.2% (48/63) | 1.4 | 0.82 to 2.28 | ||||
| How often child was sick, last 12 months | ||||||||
| 0–1 | 50.9% (2156/4239) | 50.8% (32/63) | Ref | 0.994 | ||||
| 2 or more | 49.1% (2083/4239) | 49.2% (31/63) | 1 | 0.60 to 1.68 | ||||
| Did you seek healthcare for this child in the last year? | ||||||||
| No | 47.3% (2006/4239) | 50.8% (32/63) | Ref | 0.634 | ||||
| Yes | 52.7% (2233/4239) | 49.2% (31/63) | 0.9 | 0.50 to 1.53 | ||||
| Difficulties accessing healthcare (cost, time, distance) | ||||||||
| Didn't seek care | 47.3% (2006/4239) | 50.8% (32/63) | Ref | 0.765 | ||||
| No difficulties | 46.0% (1949/4239) | 44.4% (28/63) | 0.9 | 0.51 to 1.60 | ||||
| Yes, there were difficulties | 6.7% (284/4239) | 4.8% (3/63) | 0.7 | 0.20 to 2.08 | ||||
| Caretaker and household information | ||||||||
| Caretaker age (years) | ||||||||
| Under 30 | 49.8% (2109/4239) | 34.9% (22/63) | Ref | 0.01 | Ref | 0.251 | ||
| 30 or older | 50.2% (2130/4239) | 65.1% (41/63) | 1.8 | 1.16 to 2.94 | 1.38 | 0.80 to 2.39 | ||
| Primary caretaker of the child interviewed | ||||||||
| Other | 4.2% (178/4239) | 7.9% (5/63) | Ref | 0.166 | ||||
| Mother | 95.8% (4061/4239) | 92.1% (58/63) | 0.5 | 0.18 to 1.34 | ||||
| Total number of household members | ||||||||
| 0–6 | 71.7% (3039/4239) | 74.6% (47/63) | Ref | 0.591 | ||||
| Above 6 | 28.3% (1200/4239) | 25.4% (16/63) | 0.9 | 0.48 to 1.51 | ||||
| Drinking water source | ||||||||
| Other (borehole, river, tap) | 54.9% (2326/4239) | 36.5% (23/63) | Ref | 0.007 | Ref | 0.008 | ||
| Well | 45.1% (1913/4239) | 63.5% (40/63) | 2.1 | 1.24 to 3.66 | 2.09 | 1.22 to 3.60 | ||
| Water treatment | ||||||||
| No | 71.2% (3020/4239) | 73.0% (46/63) | Ref | 0.759 | ||||
| Yes (strain through cloth, let stand and settle, boil) | 28.8% (1219/4239) | 27.0% (17/63) | 0.9 | 0.54 to 1.57 | ||||
| Wealth score (mobile phone, motorbike, tractor, camel) | ||||||||
| 0–1 | 63.5% (2693/4239) | 65.1% (41/63) | Ref | 0.81 | ||||
| 2–4 | 36.5% (1546/4239) | 34.9% (22/63) | 0.9 | 0.55 to 1.60 | ||||
Analysis adjusted for the survey design.
Variables with 10 or more cases and a p<0.2 in the univariable analysis included in the multivariable model (child age, birth order, caretaker age, drinking water source).
P value from logistic regression model.
aOR, adjusted odds ratio.