Table 1.

Hormonal profile in obesity

Hormones	Serum level in obese patients	Effects in obese patients
Leptin	Increased (resistance of hypothalamic centers to lep-tin)	Inability of leptin to regulate satiety and modulate the energy balance Worsens reflux esophagitis through its pro-inflammatory effect
Adiponectin	Decreased	Increase of erosive esophagitis or Barrett's esopha-gus
CCK	Increased	Stimulates appetite and induces body weight gain Increase in the frequency of transient IES relaxations Delays gastric emptying Inhibits intestinal motility
Ghrelin	Decreased	Delays gastric emptying Inhibits pyloric relaxation Inhibits intestinal motility Inhibits colonic secretion and motility
Adrenalin	Increased	Delays gastric emptying Inhibits intestinal motility
CRF	Increased	Inhibits gastric motor function in the antrum and corpus
PP	Increased after a meal Decreased	Reduces gastric emptying Inhibits intestinal motility
PYY	Increased after a meal	Inhibits GI motility Reduces small bowel motility and increases ileal absorption Inhibits colonic motility
NPY	Increased	Stimulates appetite and induces body weight gain Delays gastric emptying Inhibits colonic secretion and motility
GIP	Increased	Inhibits appetite Delays gastric emptying
GLP-1	Increased	Inhibits appetite Delays gastric emptying Inhibits intestinal motility and secretion
GLP-2	Increased	Inhibits gastric and intestinal motility
Somatostatin	Increased	Inhibits the release of gastrin and inhibits gastric motility
IVP	Increased	Relaxes the smooth muscles of the intestine Inhibits colonic secretion and motility
Serotonin	Increased Decreased in the colon	Activates intestinal motility and gastric emptying Stimulates release of bile salts and intestinal absorption of fat Inhibits colonic motility
Cortisol	Increased	Inhibits colonic motility by increased CCK secretion