Appendix Table A.

Description of Control Variables (Matching Covariates)

Variable	Description
School majority black at Y9	Coded 1 if more than 50% of students in school at Y9 are black (National Center for Education Statistics data).
School majority Hispanic at Y9	Coded 1 if more than 50% of students in school at Y9 are Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics data).
School majority free/reduced-price lunch at Y9	Coded 1 if more than 50% of students in school at Y9 eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (National Center for Education Statistics data).
School out-of-school suspension rate at Y9	Proportion of students in school in 2009 (a small percentage in 2011) who received an out-of-school suspension (Office of Civil Rights data).
Neighborhood disadvantage	Standardized mean composite constructed from tract-level census 2000 variables (poverty rate, percent without a bachelor’s degree, occupational status reversed, percent on public assistance, unemployment, household income reversed) based on mother address at Y5.
Father lives with child at Y1	Coded 1 if father reports to be living with the child at least part-time at Y1.
Father incarcerated by Y1	Coded 1 if the mother or father reported that the father spent time in jail or prison by Y1.
Child male	Coded 1 if child’s sex at birth is reported as male.
Child Non-Hispanic black	Based on parents’ self-reported race; coded 1 if either parent is Non-Hispanic black.
Child Hispanic	Based on parents’ self-reported ethnicity; coded 1 if either parent is Hispanic.
Child age in months at Y5	Child’s age in months at time of mother’s interview.
Father age at Y0	Father’s age in years in the year 2000 (based on adjusted self-reports of age at time of Y0 survey).
Mother criminal justice contact at Y3	Coded 1 if mother reports being stopped by police, booked or charged with breaking the law, or incarcerated by Y3.
Father impulsivity at Y1	Six self-reported items at Y1; some missing cases are imputed with mother or father reports about father at Y5 (alpha = 0.99).
Mother impulsivity at Y3	Six self-reported items at Y3; some missing cases are imputed with mother or father reports about mother at Y5 (alpha = 0.99).
Father substance abuse by Y1	Coded 1 if father or mother reports that father’s drinking or drug use interferes with his daily activities or personal relationships at Y0 or Y1. Fathers are asked about the past year but mothers are asked about current conditions.
Mother’s violence victimization by father by Y1	Coded 1 if mother reports being slapped, kicked, hit, cut, bruised, or seriously hurt by the father by Y1.
Father and mother married at Y0	Coded 1 if the mother and father are married at Y0.
Father and mother cohabiting at Y0	Coded 1 if the mother and father are cohabiting at Y0.
Mother has post-secondary schooling at Y0	Binary measure constructed from mother self-reports at Y0.
Father has post-secondary schooling at Y0	Binary measure constructed from father self-reports or mothers reports about the fathers if the father did not participate at Y0.
Either parent material hardship at Y1	Coded 1 if mother or father reported to have experienced any of 12 items taken from the Survey of Income and Program Participation.
Mother depression at Y1	Based on self-reports to the Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form (liberal definition).
Either parent not a US citizen	Coded 1 if either parent reports not being a US citizen.
Mother lived with both parents at age 15	Coded 1 if mother reports at Y0 that she lived with both her biological parents at age 15.
Father lived with both parents at age 15	Coded 1 if father reports at Y0 that he lived with both his biological parents at age 15.
Mother religious attendance at Y0	Mother self-reports ranging from 1 = once a week or more to 5 = not at all (reverse coded).
Mother cognitive ability	Sum score for eight items from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Revised at Y3 (alpha = 0.60).
Father cognitive ability	Sum score for eight items from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Revised at Y3. Some fathers were administered the test at Y1 (alpha = 0.59).
Child low birth weight	Coded 1 if child weighed less than 2500 grams at birth. Multiple births (less than 2% of analytical sample) coded as missing.
Number of children in mother household at Y1	Number of children under age 18 in mother’s household at Y1.

Notes: Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Y0 = baseline (birth); Y1 = one-year follow-up survey; Y3 = three-year follow-up survey; Y5 = five-year follow-up survey; Y9 = nine-year follow-up survey. More information including scales documentation available at: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/documentation