Table 1.
Characteristics of the parent and offspring groups.
| Parents | Offspring | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total (n = 1233) | Father (n = 534) | Mother (n = 699) | p-value | Total (n = 917) | Son (n = 467) | Daughter (n = 450) | p-value | |
| Age (years) | 57.67 ± 8.50 | 59.38 ± 8.28 | 56.36 ± 8.45 | <0.01 | 29.10 ± 7.57 | 30.70 ± 8.19 | 27.43 ± 6.46 | <0.01 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.90 ± 3.01 | 23.91 ± 2.77 | 23.89 ± 3.19 | 0.93 | 22.84 ± 3.84 | 24.11 ± 3.74 | 21.52 ± 3.49 | <0.01 |
| Daily energy intake (kcal/day) | 1952.86 ± 782.82 | 2313.2 ± 873.5 | 1698.3 ± 592.4 | <0.01 | 2158.60 ± 1051.72 | 2579.7 ± 1206.4 | 1776.2 ± 695.6 | < 0.01 |
| Daily protein intake (g/day) | 13.99 ± 3.78 | 14.06 ± 3.67 | 13.94 ± 3.85 | 0.61 | 14.98 ± 4.61 | 15.14 ± 4.72 | 14.83 ± 4.50 | 0.36 |
| Appendicular skeletal mass (g) | 17,175.49 ± 4370.72 | 21261.3 ± 3068.9 | 14059.1 ± 2009.3 | <0.01 | 19028.86 ± 5348.42 | 23390.3 ± 3377.3 | 14480.4 ± 2447.7 | < 0.01 |
| SMI (%)a | 27.56 ± 4.16 | 31.47 ± 2.44 | 24.58 ± 2.34 | <0.01 | 29.32 ± 4.28 | 32.57 ± 2.95 | 25.93 ± 2.41 | <0.01 |
| RASM(kg/m2)b | 6.56 ± 1.14 | 7.51 ± 0.86 | 5.83 ± 0.70 | <0.01 | 6.69 ± 1.43 | 7.78 ± 0.95 | 5.55 ± 0.83 | <0.01 |
| Home income in quantiles | ||||||||
| Low | 109 (8.84) | 39 (7.3) | 70 (10.01) | 0.11 | 85 (9.26) | 52 (11.13) | 33 (7.33) | <0.01 |
| Mid-low | 329 (26.68) | 132 (24.71) | 197 (28.18) | 248 (27.04) | 144 (30.83) | 104 (23.11) | ||
| Mid-high | 381 (30.90) | 173 (32.39) | 208 (29.75) | 285 (31.07) | 140 (29.97) | 145 (32.22) | ||
| High | 396 (32.11) | 183 (34.26) | 213 (30.47) | 284 (30.97) | 125 (26.76) | 159 (35.33) | ||
| Education: ≥ high school | 591 (47.93) | 294 (55.06) | 297 (42.49) | <0.01 | 888 (96.84) | 445 (95.29) | 443 (98.44) | <0.01 |
| Marital status: married | 1104 (89.54) | 521 (97.57) | 583 (83.40) | <0.01 | 113 (12.32) | 76 (16.27) | 37 (8.22) | <0.01 |
| Current smoker | 202 (16.48) | 179 (33.58) | 23 (3.32) | <0.01 | 282 (31.06) | 238 (51.40) | 44 (9.89) | <0.01 |
| Drinking | ||||||||
| Heavy drinker | 286 (23.20) | 209 (39.14) | 77 (11.02) | <0.01 | 316 (34.46) | 182 (38.97) | 134 (29.78) | <0.01 |
| Social drinker | 535 (43.39) | 209 (39.14) | 326 (46.64) | 508 (55.40) | 250 (53.53) | 258 (57.33) | ||
| Resistance exercise | ||||||||
| 0–1days/wk | 902 (73.15) | 316 (59.18) | 586 (83.83) | <0.01 | 633 (69.03) | 255 (54.60) | 378 (84.00) | <0.01 |
| 2–3days/wk | 141 (11.44) | 91 (17.04) | 50 (7.15) | 144 (15.70) | 100 (21.41) | 44 (9.78) | ||
| ≥ 4days/wk | 190 (15.41) | 127 (23.78) | 63 (9.01) | 140 (15.27) | 112 (69.44) | 28 (6.22) | ||
| Flexibility exercise | ||||||||
| 0–1days/wk | 556 (45.09) | 227 (42.51) | 329 (47.07) | 0.05 | 408 (44.49) | 211 (45.18) | 197 (43.78) | 0.05 |
| 2–3days/wk | 230 (18.65) | 93 (17.42) | 137 (19.60) | 244 (26.61) | 108 (23.13) | 136 (30.22) | ||
| ≥ 4days/wk | 447 (36.25) | 214 (40.07) | 233 (33.33) | 265 (28.90) | 148 (44.26) | 117 (26.00) | ||
| Physical activity | ||||||||
| Highc | 170 (13.90) | 91 (17.11) | 79 (11.43) | <0.01 | 150 (16.50) | 91 (19.61) | 59 (13.26) | <0.01 |
| Moderated | 135 (11.02) | 53 (9.96) | 82 (11.83) | 0.30 | 91 (10.01) | 61 (13.15) | 30 (6.74) | <0.01 |
| Lowe | 475 (38.74) | 221 (41.46) | 254 (36.65) | 0.09 | 435 (47.85) | 233 (50.22) | 202 (45.39) | 0.15 |
| HTN | 371 (30.09) | 185 (34.64) | 186 (26.61) | <0.01 | 20 (2.18) | 18 (3.85) | 2 (0.44) | <0.01 |
| DM | 197 (15.98) | 76 (14.23) | 121 (17.31) | 0.14 | 19 (2.07) | 15 (3.21) | 4 (0.89) | 0.01 |
| Stroke | 36 (2.92) | 22 (4.12) | 14 (2.00) | 0.03 | 1 (0.11) | 1 (0.21) | 0 (0) | 0.25 |
| MI/angina | 49 (3.97) | 31 (5.81) | 18 (2.58) | <0.01 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | - |
| OA | 192 (15.57) | 35 (6.55) | 157 (22.46) | <0.01 | 4 (0.44) | 3 (0.64) | 1 (0.22) | 0.32 |
| RA | 38 (3.08) | 7 (1.31) | 31 (4.43) | <0.01 | 3 (0.33) | 1 (0.21) | 2 (0.44) | 0.54 |
| Thyroid disease | 64 (5.19) | 9 (1.69) | 55 (7.87) | <0.01 | 15 (1.64) | 1 (0.21) | 14 (3.11) | <0.01 |
| CRF | 51 (4.14) | 13 (2.43) | 38 (5.44) | <0.01 | 30 (3.27) | 9 (1.93) | 21 (4.67) | 0.02 |
| Depression | 12 (0.97) | 4 (0.75) | 8 (1.14) | <0.01 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | - |
| Cancer | 73 (5.92) | 27 (5.06) | 46 (6.58) | 0.26 | 2 (0.22) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.44) | 0.09 |
BMI, body mass index; ASM, appendicular skeletal muscle mass; SMI, skeletal muscle index; RASM, relative appendicular skeletal muscle mass; DM, diabetes mellitus; MI, myocardial infarction; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; ESRD, end-stage renal disease.
Data are expressed as the mean ± standard error (SE) or weighted percentage (SE).
For home income, drinking, and exercise, likelihood chi-square value was used instead of p-values.
a
SMI = appendicular skeletal muscle mass/weight.
b
RASM = appendicular skeletal muscle mass/height2.
c
High physical activity: intensive physical activity over 20 min s, more than 3 days a week.
d
Moderate physical activity: moderate physical activity over 30 min s, over 5 days a week.
e
Low physical activity: walking over 30 min s, more than 5 days a week.