Table 1.
Zoonotic Parasites of Reptiles Grouped According to the Modality of Transmission
| Pathogens (zoonosis) | Geographic origin of reports | Reptile hosts | Categories of zoonotic importancea | Main clinical signs in humans | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protozoa | |||||
|
Giardia duodenalis (giardiasis) |
Spain | Lizards | UI | Diarrhea | [10] |
|
Cryptosporidium parvum subtype: IIaA15G2R1 (cryptosporidiosis) |
Italy | Snakes, lizards and turtles | UI | Acute to persistent diarrhea | [75,76,78] |
|
Sarcocystis nesbitti (sarcocystosis) |
Mainly Southeast Asia | Snakes | LI | Muscular sarcocystosis | [17] |
|
Leishmania tropica, Leishmania. donovani, Leishmania turanica (cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis) |
Asia | Lizards, snakes | UI | Unknown | [40] |
|
Trypanosoma brucei (sleeping sickness) |
Africa | Monitor lizards | UI | Unknown | see Box S1b |
| Cestoda | |||||
|
Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, Spirometra mansonoides (sparganosis) |
Americas, Europe, Asia, Australia | Snakes | HI | Blindness, paralysis, death | [51] |
| Pentastomida | |||||
|
Armillifer armillatus, Armillifer moniliformis, Armillifer grandis, Armillifer agkistrodontis (pentastomiasis) |
Asia, Africa | Snakes | HI | Organ damage by larvae | [83] |
|
Raillietiella hemidactyli (creeping disease) |
SE Asia | Lizards | LI | Subcutaneous pentastomiasis | [59] |
| Nematoda | |||||
|
Trichinella zimbabwensis, Trichinella papuae (trichinosis) |
Worldwide | Crocodiles, snakes, Monitor lizards, turtles |
LI | Fever, myalgia, gastrointestinal symptoms | [47] |
|
Contracaecum spp., Anisakis spp., Pseudoterranova spp. (anisakiasis) |
Worldwide | Crocodiles | UI | Eosinophilic granulomas | [47] |
|
Eustrongylides spp. (eustrongylidosis) |
Worldwide | Crocodiles | UI | No specific symptoms recorded so far | [84] |
|
Gnathostoma binucleatum, Gnathostoma doloresi, Gnathostoma hispidum, Gnathostoma nipponicum, Gnathostoma spingerum (gnathostomosis) |
Africa, Asia, Central America | Snakes (but mainly fish) | LI | Cutaneous or visceral larvae migrans symptoms | [85] |
|
Angiostrongylus cantonensis (neuroangiostrongyliasis) |
Subtropics | Monitor lizards | HI | Eosinophilic meningitis | [86] |
| Trematoda | |||||
|
Alaria and Echinostoma (echinostomiasis) |
Asia | Turtles and crocodiles | LI | Catarrhal inflammation Peripheral eosinophilia |
[87] |
| Ixodida | |||||
| Amblyomma spp. | Africa, Asia | Monitor lizards, tortoises, snakes | LI | Dermatitis and VBDs | [44,88] |
| Bothriocroton hydrosauri | Australia | Snakes, lizards | HI | Vector of Flinders Island spotted fever | [33] |
| Haemaphysalis spp. | Europe, Africa, Asia | Lizards, viperid snakes | LI | Dermatitis and VBDs | [88] |
| Hyalomma aegyptium | Africa | Tortoises | LI | Dermatitis and VBDs | [88] |
| Ixodes spp. | Europe, North America | Snakes, lizards | HI | Dermatitis and VBDs | [35] |
| Ornithodoros spp. | Africa, North America | Tortoises and viperid snakes | LI | Dermatitis and VBDs | [88] |
| Mesostigmata | |||||
| Ophionyssus natricis | Worldwide | Snakes, lizards | LI | Dermatitis | [89,90] |
| Prostigmata | |||||
| Eutrombicula spp. | Americas | Snakes, lizards, turtles | LI | Dermatitis | [35,90] |
| Neotrombicula autumnalis | Europe | Lizards, snakes | HI | Dermatitis | [35,90] |
a
Zoonotic importance categorized as follows: high importance (HI): causing severe or lethal cases in humans clearly associated with reptiles; low importance (LI): causing human cases that are likely linked to reptiles, even though rare or accidental; unknown importance (UI): possibly zoonotic parasites that were isolated from reptiles (including spurious parasites) but causative link of reptiles to a human disease was not proved.
b
For a full reference list see Box S1 in the supplemental information online.