Table 1. Age-Adjusted Participant Characteristics by Religious Service Attendance at Study Baselinea.
| Characteristic | Religious service attendance | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NHSII 2001 (n = 66 419) | HPFS 1988 (n = 34 569) | |||||
| Never | <1 Time/wk | ≥1 Time/wk | Never | <1 Time/wk | ≥1 Time/wk | |
| Participants, No. | 16 357 | 20 787 | 29 275 | 10 376 | 9499 | 14 694 |
| Age, mean (SD), yb | 47.1 (4.5) | 46.1 (4.7) | 46.1 (4.7) | 55.5 (9.9) | 54.7 (9.5) | 55.3 (9.4) |
| Non-Hispanic white, % | 95.4 | 94.8 | 95.6 | 95.5 | 95.5 | 97.0 |
| Geographic region, % | ||||||
| Northeast | 32.6 | 35.7 | 31.9 | 29.4 | 18.0 | 18.3 |
| Midwest | 27.4 | 32.1 | 37.4 | 21.8 | 26.2 | 33.8 |
| South | 16.3 | 17.4 | 19.5 | 23.3 | 26.0 | 30.5 |
| West | 23.7 | 14.9 | 11.3 | 25.5 | 29.8 | 17.3 |
| Household income, mean (SD), $ | ||||||
| <50 000 | 16.5 | 14.6 | 17.0 | NA | NA | NA |
| 50 000-74 999 | 27.8 | 26.3 | 28.5 | NA | NA | NA |
| 75 000-99 999 | 20.2 | 21.4 | 22.0 | NA | NA | NA |
| ≥100 000 | 35.4 | 37.7 | 32.6 | NA | NA | NA |
| Occupation, % | ||||||
| Dentist | NA | NA | NA | 55.9 | 56.8 | 57.3 |
| Pharmacist | NA | NA | NA | 7.1 | 8.8 | 9.4 |
| Optometrist | NA | NA | NA | 6.8 | 8.2 | 7.1 |
| Osteopath | NA | NA | NA | 3.7 | 4.1 | 3.5 |
| Podiatrist | NA | NA | NA | 2.9 | 3.4 | 2.3 |
| Veterinarian | NA | NA | NA | 23.7 | 18.6 | 20.3 |
| Currently employed, % | 90.4 | 90.2 | 86.5 | NA | NA | NA |
| Employment status, % | ||||||
| Full-time | NA | NA | NA | 81.4 | 84.5 | 83.5 |
| Part-time | NA | NA | NA | 6.9 | 5.9 | 5.6 |
| Retired | NA | NA | NA | 11.1 | 9.2 | 10.4 |
| Disabled | NA | NA | NA | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
| Night-shift work, % | ||||||
| None | 89.4 | 89.0 | 91.0 | NA | NA | NA |
| 1-9 mo | 5.5 | 5.7 | 4.9 | NA | NA | NA |
| 10-19 mo | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.6 | NA | NA | NA |
| ≥20 mo | 3.3 | 3.5 | 2.5 | NA | NA | NA |
| Live alone, % | 12.6 | 8.4 | 6.2 | 9.6 | 5.9 | 3.5 |
| Social integration score, % | ||||||
| Lowest quartile | 23.3 | 10.7 | 3.9 | 20.2 | 8.9 | 4.6 |
| 2nd | 42.7 | 34.8 | 23.4 | 43.4 | 34.3 | 22.2 |
| 3rd | 23.2 | 37.1 | 49.9 | 21.8 | 34.4 | 42.9 |
| Highest quartile | 10.8 | 17.5 | 22.8 | 14.6 | 22.5 | 30.3 |
| Childhood abuse, mean (SD), scorec | 1.9 (1.6) | 1.8 (1.5) | 1.7 (1.5) | NA | NA | NA |
| Routine physical examination, % | 75.2 | 78.2 | 79.6 | 72.9 | 78.8 | 77.0 |
| Alcohol intake, % | ||||||
| 0 g/d | 32.5 | 33.8 | 47.5 | 16.7 | 16.8 | 31.0 |
| 0.1-9.9 g/d | 48.5 | 52.1 | 44.0 | 36.0 | 45.0 | 37.1 |
| 10.0-29.9 g/d | 16.0 | 12.4 | 7.6 | 29.7 | 27.4 | 23.2 |
| ≥30.0 g/d | 3.0 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 17.6 | 10.8 | 8.7 |
| Cigarette smoking, % | ||||||
| Never | 55.9 | 62.3 | 73.9 | 43.5 | 46.6 | 53.9 |
| Former | 29.7 | 27.7 | 21.6 | 44.6 | 44.8 | 39.8 |
| Current, cigarettes/d | ||||||
| 1-14 | 6.4 | 5.2 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 2.8 | 2.2 |
| 15-24 | 5.4 | 3.4 | 1.4 | 4.2 | 3.1 | 2.4 |
| ≥25 | 2.6 | 1.4 | 0.4 | 4.6 | 2.8 | 1.7 |
| Physical activity, % | ||||||
| <3.0 METS | 21.1 | 19.2 | 18.6 | 20.9 | 18.7 | 19.9 |
| 3.0-8.9 METS | 19.3 | 20.4 | 21.8 | 21.4 | 21.4 | 24.2 |
| 9.0-17.9 METS | 18.6 | 19.9 | 21.1 | 16.8 | 18.6 | 18.6 |
| 18.0-26.9 METS | 12.7 | 13.2 | 13.9 | 13.0 | 13.8 | 13.1 |
| ≥27.0 METS | 28.3 | 27.3 | 24.6 | 28.0 | 27.5 | 24.2 |
| Body mass index categories, %d | ||||||
| <20 | 7.8 | 7.1 | 7.3 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.3 |
| 20.0-24.9 | 43.5 | 43.9 | 45.1 | 47.8 | 46.8 | 45.5 |
| 25.0-29.9 | 25.8 | 26.5 | 26.7 | 43.1 | 44.6 | 45.8 |
| 30.0-34.9 | 12.5 | 12.9 | 12.2 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.4 |
| ≥35.0 | 10.4 | 9.7 | 8.9 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.0 |
| Caffeine intake, % | ||||||
| Bottom quintile | 16.6 | 18.0 | 24.5 | 16.6 | 17.0 | 22.8 |
| Second | 17.9 | 19.7 | 21.9 | 17.9 | 20.2 | 20.9 |
| Third | 20.7 | 21.0 | 18.8 | 20.4 | 21.3 | 19.1 |
| Fourth | 22.6 | 20.7 | 17.7 | 21.9 | 20.9 | 19.3 |
| Top quintile | 22.3 | 20.7 | 17.2 | 23.2 | 20.5 | 17.9 |
| Clinical characteristic, % | ||||||
| Hypertension | 10.2 | 10.2 | 9.2 | 19.9 | 20.7 | 19.6 |
| Hypercholesterolemia | 13.9 | 13.9 | 13.1 | 10.6 | 11.5 | 10.1 |
| Diabetes | 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 2.6 | 2.4 |
| Kidney failure | NA | NA | NA | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
| Postmenopausal status | 16.5 | 16.2 | 16.3 | NA | NA | NA |
| Hormone use | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | NA | NA | NA |
| High anxiety symptoms | NA | NA | NA | 5.5 | 6.1 | 6.3 |
| Depression | 13.1 | 10.7 | 7.9 | NA | NA | NA |
| Antidepressant use | NA | NA | NA | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
Abbreviations: HPFS, Health Professionals Follow-up Study; METS, metabolic equivalents; NA, not assessed or not applicable; NHSII, Nurses’ Health Study II.
a
Values are standardized to the age distribution of the study population. Values of polytomous variables may not sum to 100% because of rounding.
b
Value is not age adjusted. The age range was 36-56 years in NHSII and 40-80 years in HPFS.
c
Childhood abuse score assessing physical, emotional, and sexual abuse during childhood and adolescence was created, ranging from 0 to 5, with a higher score indicating more severe abuse.28
d
Calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.