Figure 2.

TLR4 signaling pathway in the DN on the basis of literatures. Activation of TLR4 initiates the MyD88-dependent and MyD88-independent pathways. Moreover, the pathways converge in the activation of NF-κB, which is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, cell adhesion molecules, and profibrotic markers involved in inflammation and fibrosis, eventually leading to diabetic nephropathy. HSPs: heat shock proteins; HMGB1: high-mobility-group box 1.